Ahoy!
Well all the information did not transfer to this post. None of the photos transferred. And none of the contextual clues i..e. highlighting, emboldened, italics or, underline etc. is that not something that this only happens when I try to post my Tri-F material? I well not be taking the time to correct it all. IMO the goal here is to make my notes appear as a mad mans writings. My Patriots can organized their own notes. My Russian Patriots have returned in the last few days in a big way. Welcome a board. I'm lessening to the Rolling Stones, Angie, however i'm singing Andy, lol.
Conduct of engagements
1) Flash report:
This is individuals or units checking in with superiors, if things just don’t seem right. Something out of the ordinary happens. At first signs of trouble i.e. spotting the enemy or signs of the enemy and especially if shooting starts. This is so no one gets wiped out without someone knowing something about situation, waiting to hear from you or sending help. A round going by your ear sounds like the largest fastest bumble bee you ever heard. You may feel the puff of the swirl. In jungle thick wet vegetation muffles sound greatly contact up front or with point man may not be heard by entire unit. Hence word well have to be passed back down the line i.e. members well sound off (CONTACT). With gunfire during MOUT, one shot maybe thought of as a backfire, two or three is gunfire. If suppressors are used you might only hear rounds impacting i.e. pops, bings, dings, smacks, cracks, like a can roasting on a bond fire etc. If close, in MOUT you may here ejected casings hitting a surface. Sounding similar to a wind chime, metal for concrete, bamboo for wooden floors. You may also here the action working, sounding like machinery i.e. printing press. I note here the sounds of a fire fight can include all the above, (AT ONCE) along with whooshes, whistles, thumps etc.
(Reference, Over all tips “spotting shooters” at the end of this section)
Pre- attack warning signs: Basically you are looking for the absence of the normal and the presence of the abnormal. Lights being out, lack of activity by locals, especially when no children are playing. Windows opened but blinds, drapes or curtains pulled shut. Things of value left unattended or food cooking. Running over rocks while traveling at high speed in vehicles, thinking it was enemy fire. These pre-attack warning signs could also include…
Post attack signatures: spent castings, bullet holes, impact marks maybe chipped bark on a tree or downed vegetation i.e. branches or leaves, blood, drag marks indicating removal of the WIA or KIA. Disregarded equipment such as covers, gloves, magazines, web gear, medical gear or packaging. Fighting holes i.e. hastily prepared sites or scorch marks on sand bags, ground or walls, this from muzzle flash. Shadows forming long dark streaks in snow along firing lanes, extending out from fighting holes. Ice fogs accrue at minus 20 degrees or below, this is rounds crystallizing water vapor in the air, and forming a contrail like streak along the rounds trajectory. Will remain under still conditions for up to (30) minutes. Contrails from mortar and rocket rounds too. Damage to buildings such as windows, doors or gates. Smell of gun powder or other smoke from grass or structure fires.
Beyond 400 yards flak jacket and helmets make impacts non-fatal or harmless. Interceptor vest cons; Marines don’t know they’ve been hit i.e. fired upon. Impact trauma i.e. damage to surface allowed by test, a maximum of 44mm/2” diameter. Bullet flattened and twisted out of shape, meaning it has been ricocheted off of something.
Immediate action: with first shots unit leader dose a row call, inquires about injuries with in the unit. Ideally, he would just receive this info without having to inquire about it. You could use alphabetical order within unit. British using T-1 thru 3 i.e. levels of seriousness with WIA, T - 4 is a KIA. Depending on the foe’s range for one thing, IMO it would be best to make the most of, sign language i.e. hand signals to keep from revealing numbers and everyone’s locations to the foe. This would require word being passed along by others as everyone might not be visible to unit leader. Thus terrain, darkness or other visual difficulties may require sounding off with information especially “medical request” i.e. with urgency for care. Leader should check with support i.e. CAS assets too.
Any Marine who has seen the enemy, reports information simply as (who) including numbers of persons and weapons or equipment observed at a minimum. Examples; one person maybe described in the fallowing way, start by height “6 foot, 180 lbs, fallowed by hair and eyes if noted. Ideally, you maybe able to compare the subject to a well known actor or actress only needing to add short/tall or fat/thin version. Red on blue, pistol in right hand, flash light left hand. Meaning that the one you saw is about 6 foot tall, 180 lbs, etc wearing a red blouse and blue trousers etc. If you see a group, you might say four, fallowed by as many individual descriptions as you can note in the above mentioned manor. (What) running, taking up position. In addition, (where) reference i.e. east side of building or cardinal i.e. south of unit, clock face i.e. two o’clock, degrees/mills, it also maybe necessary to give range etc. Here when, why, and how are for the politicians to decide (LOL) i.e. IMO not necessary to use or define here.
Note w/immediate action as for Identifying the Foe, conceder using Stump/Branch/Stick and Mud/Dirt/Sand i.e. the Stump/short and heavy, branch/tall and thick or lean and mean or Stick/skinny or thin, in the Mud/dark, blacks. Dirt/tan, Mexicans etc. And sand/whites, northerner etc.
MCG April 2011, Ideas and issues (C2) The Ground Commander and the COC cmbt opr. Ctr. By 1st Lt. Adam J. Franco
Reporting can be a Units critical vulnerability or center of gravity (COG). Every Marine needs to understand the basics of “you, this is me” reporting. (SALTA) report i.e. size, activity enemy, location, time, activity friendly aka a call for fire.” IMO just SALT, i.e. (A) should be combined. Thus starting your battle drill/immediate action as well as your higher ups, which will include pulling in key leaders from the fire support team (FiST) and other units for support.
Giving a rough direction and distance or basic ADDRAC (alert, direction, description, range, assignment, control) with unit leader obtaining a defense, advanced, GPS, receiver (DAGR) grid vice a cardinal direction and rough distance.
Evaluate the enemy i.e. observe, orient, decide, act. IMO maybe the five Ws and the H, would be better i.e. who, what, where, when, why and how.
SALTA Report example;
S) Size of the enemy. Number of elements and number of fighters in each element is important. One element with a few fighters may be a recon unit not a deliberate attack, enemy maybe attempting to harass or bait you into an ambush. With multiple elements and multiple fighters in each, it could be a deliberate attack.
A) Activity of the enemy. The enemy’s movements are key to their overall plan. If the enemy is becoming decisively engaged using multiple elements, with multiple fighters in each, taking up firing positions, establishing a base of fire, and attempting to out flank, it is a deliberate attack i.e. enemy may have planned, prepared and coordinated. If the enemy is static or has fired a few shots and then egressed, that’s harassment or probing or an attempt to bait or a diversion.
note
Newjarheaddean; I find the term egressing, interesting due to the fact I’ve been planning on introducing some tactics and terms to Tri-F that I found mentioned by Vietnam pilots. Meanly switching channels on the egress i.e. after the attack on the objective. This would be in the Planning section, Step #3, Part D, Patrol order, shackle sheet notes.
What type of fire are you taking? Four types of small arms fire, and what they can mean. Note the order here is most important to least.
Detail analysis;
Sustained effective fire; effective i.e. preventing unit’s ability to maneuver and or return fire. Can mean the enemy has a plan and is attacking with numerous skilled fighters and or are already at close range. When the fire is sustained, the ground commander and COC need to utilize supporting arms/ indirect fires, organic or otherwise i.e. Armor, mortars, CAS, or artillery.
Sporadic effective fire; Enemy is engaging every few minutes with a few bursts or single shots. Affecting your unit’s ability to maneuver etc. The enemy might be at close range. Has a purpose, might be taking out equipment like antennas, tires, windshields, lights, sandbags thus weakening fighting holes thus showing skill. Or the enemy is trying to bait or probe i.e. wants to see your tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP).
Sustained ineffective fire; This type of fire will mostly come from inexperienced fighters, who lack fire discipline, training or the enemy is at long range, perhaps lacking estimate skills. Enemy may not be aiming but rather making noise thus it could be a diversion an attempt to keep unit from observing something. It can again be baiting, probing or harassment. Although this would be costly i.e. wasteful for those tactics.
Sporadic ineffective fire; enemy engaging every few minutes with a few bursts or single shots. The effects of the fire are not deterring the unit from maneuvering or returning fire. The enemy could be baiting, monitoring your TTP, harassing unit, such as disrupting taps or it simply could mean the enemy is at long range or not good shots.
What type of weapons system? Knowing the different types of weapons systems and their effective ranges will aid in locating the enemy and determine what type of force you are up against. Everyone utilizes Russian-style small arms, but different weapons mean different things. Many times in Marjah a light machinegun and AK–47s would engage us. This was standard for small ambushes or harassing fire. When we received a rocket propelled grenade shot or started receiving mortar impacts, we immediately knew it was a more deliberate attack. Newjarheaddean; here with say a PK or AK they use the same round right, so it would be the burst or accuracy that may I.D. a difference right? Because impact analysis of each round is going to show same damage.
Abbreviated version;
Sustained effective; the attack is on. Sporadic effective; engaging with purpose, close range and or skilled.
Sporadic ineffective; enemy could be baiting, monitoring TTP, harassing, lacks skill, or at long range. Sustained ineffective; mostly from inexperienced fighters, making noise, sustained rate equals lack of discipline, ineffective range they are trying to engage at or lack of training. In the COC, all this info, helps determine if a unit in contact situation needs to be declared and if a QRF is needed.
L) Location.
Friendly position should already be sent to higher at the initial contact; Newjarheaddean; if COC does not have their Blueforce Tracker data something’s wrong. If it has changed it can be corrected here.
Enemy position should be passed in one of the following ways: Mills and a distance using a VECTOR 21 laser range finder in conjuncture with DAGR Defense Advanced GPS receiver or compass. Guided reference graphic location, IMO this is a picture of a FOR i.e. feature of recognition aka way points. (not for targeting, but this allows the FiST to obtain an accurate precision strike suite for SOFs grid). The best means is a guided reference graphic talk-on. A VECTOR DAGR direction and distance or grid.
precision strike suite for SOFs, the acronym PSS SOF is pronounced, Piss off.
A soldier using PSS-SOF employs the Global Positioning System to find his own location. Then he takes a laser and lases to a target, so he can see the target on grid coordinates and also on a map. PSS-SOF then draws on three-dimensional imagery from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency so the soldier can see whether the target he’s about to shoot is correct. If the location is wrong, that soldier can drag and drop an icon on his computer screen to the correct location so that a precise munition can be called to fire at the target, Ralston said.
“this is not mensurated targeting, it is near-mensurated. But it is close enough that it will get you ‘precise’ targeting,” defined as targeting the right spot within 10 meters. Because it depends on stock imagery that is not updated, the system can’t be used for mobile targets, like tanks.
The recently fielded GMLRS provides greater precision with a smaller bang than Air Force firepower, Ralston said, because it fires a 200-pound warhead as opposed to dropping a 500-pound bomb.
Excalibur, an even smaller munition at 50 pounds, is even better for urban fighting, because it drops nearly vertically over its target, he said.
T) Time. When contact was initiated and the date time group.
Note an abreveated verson I found earlier.
SALTA (enemy situation (including size and equipment), enemy activity, location, time, friendly action) report.
S: Two to four men with small arms.
A: Explosion, either a bomb or a rocket propelled grenade, 15 meters to the north. AK fire on our rear.
L: Give grid or building number.
T: Time now.
A: Possible two wounded in action. Conducting triage and find, fix, flank source of AK fire. Stand by for medevac
Note I may have already moved this info i.e. combined it with activity above. A) Activity of friendlies. This is not your game plan just a quick assessment. Do you have positive identification? Are you returning fire? Can you maneuver? This gives the COC and higher headquarters a quick snapshot of what you are doing. You can look at this as the wave tops of your plan.
Clear site picture of what is going on. For example, “I am going to use my overwatch element in Compound 7 CE4 Sector to suppress the enemy fire team in the tree line as my satellite element maneuvers west 200 meters to a north/south running tree line to close on the enemy. I will contact you when my element begins maneuvering north in the tree line.” This kind of communication lets the COC know who is doing what, how you plan to maneuver, and when you will call them with your next update. This type of positive control of communications allows the unit leader to fight his element.
IMO; again, here I do not have a clear sight picture, this is wrong, the COC should just be monitoring, so Co does not have to repeat or waist time. IMO NO Satellite term should be used, to confusing with modern assets.
Attack commands; aka, Fire Commands, the British term is Quick battle orders (QBO). There are three parts with sub sections as fallows. Part one, Designation; (Who) example rifleman, Grenadier. Part two, Description; (What) describes target or action to be taken by unit member i.e. rush, followed by (Where) location again expressed as cardinal, clock face i.e. two o’clock or in degrees/mills fallowed by the range. In open areas True north is always considered 12 O’clock or (0) zero degrees, in a MOUT situation, grid north i.e. street layout should be used. Note with action to be taken, Example; rushes direction and range would be to the next desired location. Part three, Orders; (How) i.e. with automatic, semi and or with what type of ammo, HE, AP, tracers or fuse setting. Keep in mind that if Mark-19 rounds are striking a target, which other weapons could engage and take out, something is wrong. Mark-19 ammunition is heavy and should not be used when other weapons can do the same job. Also if you can knife them instead of shooting. Continuing with Part three, Orders next comes (When) i.e. on my command or fire/loose at well, “Ignis ubi paratus/fire when ready” etc. Again, Sign language/hand signals can be used if foe is at close range. This is also necessary when working with foreign troops. Whenever passing word IMO due so loud, clear and once, i.e. repeated at proper intervals only. In other words if you barely heard it chances are the next Marine did not hear it, or if the Marine beyond you is not observed or heard passing the word. Where’s the (Why)? (LOL) you are just to do or die, i.e. IMO there is no need to use or define why here.
(Reference, Defensive section rule # 7 Decide on signals)
Here we can add our calling for CAS and other support procedures. See Location above.
Encounter engagement;
Not all battles are straightforward situations of attacker versus defender. At times, units encounter each other in the advance. Unlike running into a rearguard, which is protecting a retreating unit, an encounter engagement differs in that neither side is fully aware of the scale of the forces they are facing. This is because the enemy has probably not yet presented the greater part of its forces. At the Battalion level, the advance would be conducted with a single Rifle Company in the vanguard. The remainder of the Battalion would follow either in column or arrowhead formation. The latter was more likely as the Battalion approached areas they were uncertain of, as the Rifle Companies could deploy much quicker. Such encounters were as much about maneuvers as they were firepower. The action would begin at the lowest level, likely two groups of scouts running into one another. From there, the vanguard would deploy, seeking to outflank the enemy. What differentiates an encounter engagement is that, rather than attempting to defend their line or fall back slightly, the enemy often well be doing the same thing i.e. trying to outflank. Thus, the frontline well be fluid, as it has yet to be delineated. Such engagements can quickly develop into a general engagement as more units are fed in, with units searching for an open flank to exploit. Senior commanders could also be tempted by the possibility of ‘rolling up’ the enemy line before they can establish a defensive position. If one moved quickly, there was the chance of cutting off the enemy’s vanguard from its main force, but in so doing units were exposed to a similar fate. Equally, this opportunity could be lost if one opted for caution. The key to this decision rested on accurate intelligence. As well as the proximity and likelihood of reinforcements.
Note; IMO on a Fire Team or Squad level it would always be best to be initially very aggressive with in a given area depending on terrain. That is to say, around the perimeter or within a single building with MOUT, or several hundred feet i.e. foot ball field size area in semi open terrain i.e. street side or brush country, however jungle terrain usually confines units to very small areas for maneuvering, and success depends more on your initial formation and immediate overwhelming firepower.
2) Approach and pursue with care:
With wounded or apparently dead friendly what ever got him, sniper or booby trap, might get you. Snipers are usually limited to a narrow field of view and may not be able to readily differentiate between friendly and enemy forces. With booby-trap there maybe more than one. Body itself might be rigged. With foe all the above applies plus foe could be faking injury. Also, show caution when being hailed/called to locations. Don’t allow yourself to be led anywhere. With someone hailing i.e. calling you, modern equipment such as personal communication gear, cameras, video headsets etc. should limit reasons for one member needing another’s presents in the first place. However just because video shows no threat dose not mean there is not one. Approaching from other than the expected direction or entrance would help, use challenge and pass word system for blind corners or rooms etc. It is also wise to wait before approaching vehicles if you cannot positively I.D. anyone driving. Also show caution when being hailed to a vehicle, even if you can see a friend driving etc. your friend could be a hostage. Also with vehicles that are on fire, flammable cargo such as ammo may start to cook off. With pursuits, do not closely pursue individuals or units, you never know when the foe will stop and ambush or booby trap the path. Maybe just a few Dead Enders, unwilling or unable to retreat due to injury. You should pursue along parallel path. The key point is speed, over take and cut them off at the pass.
(Reference, PCP rule # 3, “snipers can be used” as well as COE rule # 3 below)
3) Attack or retreat in shifts:
This is covering each other during attacks or retreats i.e. during advancing or withdrawal rushes/movements and you should take special care in exposed places i.e. crossing open spaces, avenues or around blind corners. Attacking or retreating in shifts can also be done vertically i.e. from different floors. Teams can cover each other from different buildings. Historically horses i.e. cavalry units have been used to lead charges and cover retreats. When bounding with individuals, units or vehicles, those providing cover fire should be halted, making accurate fire of a half mile to one mile ranges possible. It is always best if the one providing cover is concealed too i.e. unseen no movement, remaining motionless until the one being covered is ready to provide cover. It maybe advantages at times to avoid even numbers with groups. For example an individual covering a fireteam or fireteam covering a platoon. Three methods: movement by successive bounds, this is leap froging to each others position. Take care to avoid bunching up in large groups. Movement by alternate bonds, this is leap froging pass one another’s positions. Note that, point man commonly moves to fast or far breaking formation (if you well). Three man filer buster method, the method starts with a three man unit in a (V) formation. It involved each Marine at some point becoming the so-called middleman (i.e. next to advance) and who advances between the other two Marines. This method provides a unique option, that being that a team could use it in a defensive stand, with the team leader remaining stationary i.e. becoming the center if you well at the base of the (V) while the other two took turns rushing between the leader and there fellow maneuvering Marine as they rotated around the team leader, thus shifting locations and providing fire in what ever direction the leader directed. At night especially, this would give the foe, an impression the unit was larger than just three. In general, the filer buster method also provided for maximum flexibility for units to change directions i.e. move and fight in any direction needed.
In principle the responsibilities of all Marines providing cover and with the filibuster method the two stationary Marines, are to assist the maneuvering middle man by placing well aimed shots on foe (i.e. shooting the foe) this distracts and keeps foe from being able to keep tabs on the maneuvering middleman and causes foe’s fire to be ineffective and or to seize. In addition, they keep tabs on foe, feed information to the middleman about foe. With filer buster method, the Marine located at the stern should initiate cover fire, ideally only a three round burst. This is due to the fact that middleman i.e. rusher well be quickly crossing the stream of cover fire.
With all methods of bounding Marines providing cover may chose to sound off “Move, or some other verbal” to indicate they are prepared to provide cover. This maybe the case in particular before the shooting starts. However ideally before shooting starts especially if foe is unaware of your units approach, hand signals, i.e. maybe a twisting of the rifle from horizontal to the upright should be used. IMO normally under fire most likely it well be the volume, location i.e. direction and perhaps slightly different sound of the weapon providing the cover fire that clues you in to the times to move i.e. rush. If your not shooting you should be, doing a tactical reload (i.e. loading even through your not completely out, IMO switch to full magazine and top off old magazine after placing it back in pouch) this is coupled with a 360 check, and or communicating with others or moving. You choose the method of bounding based on the amount of cover and concealment available in the area and the volume of fire you are under. If your group is under heavy fire, with lots of cover in area, there is less need for always alternating who moves next.
The methods of fire and movement described above have a drawback in the application. Depending upon the distance to be covered, the need to swap fire positions to maintain cover also slows the advance. Making rushes as long as possible can help, however the longer the assault takes, and with any lessening of cover fire, the greater the chance for the foe to target the attackers. An alternative is marching fire i.e. the Squad advancing as a single entity. All arms are brought to bear on the enemy during the advance. The key to success is in overwhelming supporting fire delivered from artillery, mortars, machine guns and ideally accompanying tanks. There is no subtlety involved whatsoever. The advantage is speed, using such shock action, a line of riflemen can advance quickly to the enemy line and move into the close combat i.e. Assault phase and when pressed resolutely it can be astoundingly successful.
Even in very open terrain the well-trained rifleman will be able to locate and use all kinds of limited cover, such as slight depressions or rises. You can low crawl sometimes under cover fire right up to foe’s position. In snow you maybe able to crouch on to skies and slide or be pulled into positions. However, in very open areas, an advance will usually necessitate overwhelming fire superiority with consequent longer bounds between firing positions.
(Reference, STEP # 2, Leadership guidelines, Light machine gun group. And COE overall tips; Machine gun sections.)
Unit estimated capabilities (i.e. speed and ranges obtainable). Comparative information to consider, (Olympic athletes 60 meter run 7 seconds. 100 meters 9.85 seconds. 200 meters 19.85 seconds. Also, various altitudes would affect performance). As a rule of thumb for Marines conducting alternate bounding cycles, with a column lateral movement, Marines humping 25- 50 lbs of combat kit, executing zigzags and momentary stops and or drops. 150’/50 m rushes in 20 seconds would be well within their capabilities. To continue, with a six man fire team, 50’ intervals, divided into two sections of three moving in pairs (i.e. pairs being last Marine from each section) cycle starts with rushers advancing 50’ past respective point man for a total rush of 150’/50m. Thus 40 seconds between individual rushes, 1 minute between cycles for each section. Thus 60 cycles per hour for a max of one hour. Thus 60 x 150’ = 9000’ exactly or about one and three quarters of a mile (9240’) an hour on average. Note if individuals rushed the entire length of the six-man fire team they would have to do 300’ rushes, taking up to a minute with 6-minute cycles, 10 cycles per hour 10 x 300’ equals 3000’ per hour. Note IMO with the last method the individual would be in motion far to long for secure movement however, the one advantage is more cover fire is at the ready. Therefore, if a unit was under heavy fire and the goal was to place one Marine in a specific location this would be the preferred method.
With sections of three Marines each rushing as groups, each section member rushes 300’/100m or yards, in 30 seconds. 30 seconds between section rushes one minute cycles. Thus 60 cycles per hour for a maximum of one hour. Thus 60 x 300’ = 18000’ (3.4 miles exact) or 3 and a half miles 18480 feet.
More comparative information with unit runs female Olympic runners are doing 5kms i.e. 3miles in 15 minutes. Thus, IMO combat troops humping 25 lbs of kit 18 minutes would be well within their capabilities.
Note work figures for successive bounds of pairs or sections.
Indian running units, vehicles or ships.
Firefighters said to be capable of climbing an average of 25 flights of stairs an hour. IMO the weight of equipment between firefighters and Marines would be about the same.
On “war cries”, one should not sound off until combatants have joined in combat. Sounding off too early, can be considered a sign of arrogance or cowardice. The effect is grater when foe is hearing cry, at the same time they are meeting weapons.
Note again on this GO, GO, GO, GO, we here the Mainers and troops barking out as they exit or enter things. This not only lets all foes in the area know precisely when your exiting or interring, it IMO distracts and hinders the hearing abilities of those in your unit. IMO its just hoop and hype Bull Shit cheerleading. I wound just prefer to here a single “Due it” i.e. the old D.I. command that is instilled in all Marines during boot camp (this being the execution command fallowing any detailed instructions). It should carry over to the FMF and there be reinforced.
A fire team is the basic element of the GCE. It consists of four Marines: three riflemen and a team leader, typically a Corporal or Lance Corporal.
The USMC summarizes its fireteam organization with the mnemonic "ready-team-fire-assist", the following being the arrangement of the fireteam when in a column:
Rifleman: acts as a scout; "Ready".
Team Leader (M203): also works as the grenadier; "Team".
Automatic Rifleman (currently M249 SAW or M27 IAR, formerly BAR): also serves as second in command for the fireteam; "Fire".
Assistant Automatic Rifleman: carries extra ammunition; "Assist".
The fireteam is organized around the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon and now there is also the M-27 Infantry Automatic rifle I. A. R. Upon receiving fire, the fireteam can organize in a methodical way to engage the enemy with fireteam "rushes". Fireteam rushes are movement by one part of the team during cover by fire by the other part of the team. Generally, first the Rifleman and Team Leader will move ahead, being covered by the Automatic and Assistant Automatic Riflemen, then the Automatic and Assistant Automatic Riflemen will move up to the Rifleman and Team Leader, being covered by the Rifleman and Team Leader. The process is repeated until no forward progress is possible without serious risk to the entire fireteam. When finally upon the objective, the fireteam assumes a "hasty 180", where the Automatic Rifleman covers 11 o'clock to 1 o'clock (12 o'clock being the most likely avenue of enemy approach), with the Rifleman and Assistant Automatic Rifleman covering 9 to 11 and 1 to 3 respectively. The Team Leader is next to the Automatic Rifleman to complement his fire with grenade rounds and to assign targets for the M249. Once a frontal enemy counterattack is deemed unlikely, the fireteam then will assume a "consolidated 360" to ensure the flanks of the fireteam are protected. The position of Marines in the fireteam is sometimes called RTFA (Ready - Team - Fire - Assist) because of one of the fireteam formations that are possible.
Maneuvers and Formations;
At this point I would like to suggest everyone recall the General phases of an attack; one the approach, two contact, three the assault and four consolidation.
Maneuvers: Single envelopment – advantages, element of surprise is usually possible. Choose the ground you fight on. Causes enemy to fight in two directions. Generally effects foe’s moral vs. a frontal attack. Should not be used at night. Maneuver element two thirds of unit’s total strength. Uses fire and maneuver until fire and movement becomes necessary. Note; fire and maneuver involves units or groups moving. Fire and movement is individual Marines or vehicles moving. Base element one third of unit’s total strength. Assist maneuver element in the same manor as mentioned under responsibilities of Marines providing cover fire in successive, alternate or filer buster methods.
Double envelopment – one form of a double envelopment is a pincer, note; over all the units movements could be simultaneous or alternating i.e. one element for holding/placing fire on target or used as a decoy.
Formations:
Column – Purpose; for traveling long distances. Make time. Difficult for foe to count your unit quickly. Keep injuries down. Put large unit through small narrow passages. Down hill movement, deep snow may also dictate the use of a line formation when it would not be considered suitable on level ground. Pros; strong flanks, good control and communication. Cons; weak point and stern. Slow in reacting laterally (i.e. to the bow or stern).
During WWII, a typical formation was lead by the Squad Leader. Behind him came the Gun Group, ready to provide quick supporting fire. The riflemen followed the gun team, with the Assistant Leader bringing up the rear in the German and American model to close up the formation. British and Russian variations placed him with the Gun Group. This column formation was favored during the advance to the combat zone. It was not a fighting formation, merely a traveling one. In those areas where it was uncertain precisely at what point the Squad could expect to encounter resistance, one or two men would go forward as scouts. The US Squad routinely placed two men on point for a column in front of the Leader. Prior to combat, or after coming under unexpected fire, the Squad would deploy. The riflemen would form a skirmish line, either centered around the light machine gun, or flanking it on one or the other side, depending upon the favored doctrine. To reduce vulnerability to enemy fire, this skirmish line would spread out, leaving some 3 to 5 meters between each man. In reality, movement was more dictated by terrain, conditions and enemy action. Men learned to break up the intervals between units or individuals, as well as to avoid bunching up. IMO thus keeping the foe from being able to guess location of another man based on knowing location of one in the formation. This (bunching up i.e. cluster fuck) was a cardinal sin, as to submit to the temptation of sticking close to, a friend in front meant a far greater chance of both falling victim to a single shell or machine gun burst. Men would always seek to advance under cover of trees, hedges, walls, defiles, streams, natural depressions, anything that would place a barrier between them and the enemy's line of sight. However, the ground was not always kind, and at some point would come a tract of land with no discernable cover. Only the most charitable or incompetent of enemies would fail to cover that tract with fire. Negotiating passage over ground under fire called for speed and suppression, but how was the infantryman to quell the barrage of distant artillery? Unless his own guns were mounting counter battery fire, the only solution was to wait for a pause and then rush forward.
(Reference, COE, rule # 5 and PCP rule # 11)
Echelon – Purpose; protect flanks. Probing foe lines. Pros; difficult for foe to tell your direction of travel. Difficult for foe to out flank. Cons; slow moving. Difficult to control. Odd fields of fire.
Wedge- Purpose; foe presents expected, location unknown. When in dense terrain or during bad weather, and at night. Pros; maximum separation with in minimum area. All around good fire. Good control and communication. Quick reacting. Cons; complacency and working closely with other units. A pincer is commonly used to counters a wedge.
With a three Squad Platoon, there were three offensive formations that could be used. Known by many names, but perhaps the most descriptive would be arrowhead, V shape, and line.
Arrowhead or narrow wedge (a reverse V shaped see fig below with command unit in center) formation, with scout unit up front other squads trailing in echelons. Formation had the advantage that it kept the bulk of the Platoon from direct contact with the enemy during the initial stage. On encountering resistance, the lead Squad would shift to a fire role, pinning the enemy.
Arrowhead shaped like inverted (V) with a stick out the top. Machine Gun group/team on flank enemy expected or known to be on. It is a maneuver unit formation. Used when enemy location known. Fire team on opposite side as flanking unit.
Spearhead machine gun group/team is centered up front. Purpose as line breaker. Pros; good for machine gun team vs. fire team.
True V formation; It mimicked the arrowhead but inverted the deployment of the Squads. Now, the advance was carried by two Squads moving in parallel i.e. two squads up front. The third Squad was held back in support, while Platoon Headquarters again occupied the centre. This reversal placed the greater part of the Platoon in direct line with the enemy, it also increased the weight of fire the Commander could bring to bear against the foe. The leading Squads would cover each other using fire and movement. The third Squad was held back in reserve, or used to provide additional over watching fire. The drawback was that the only way to achieve numerical superiority in the assault phase was to throw in the third Squad, or better still use it to cover the final assault of the other two. It was a slow and deliberate advance, unsuited to a fast moving assault. It was of great benefit against a true defense in depth, where there were several lines to be breached. There was also a problem though, in that as the bulk of the company was in the leading echelon, once battle was joined it had a tendency to become engaged in the firefight i.e. if two squads, platoons or companies became pinned down by effective enemy fire, they were robbed of their ability to maneuver. There was a school of thought which reckoned units should be presented more like an iceberg, in that the majority of its strength was kept uncommitted, until the true dispositions of the defender had been revealed. A single fire team/squad/platoon/company/battalion advance kept the greater part of the over all unit under control this helped to counter the defense in depth. The Commander could now decide how to develop the attack with a far more capable reserve. The drawback was the obvious reduction in the frontage of the unit involved. IMO making it possible that two units on patrol may discover one another only after the units where near or on each other’s flanks. Leading with just a single unit i.e. fire team, squad, platoon, company, or battalion, meant now instead of the unit’s effort being dissipated across a two unit frontage, the Commander could utilize all of his available firepower to support the efforts of his single main effort unit. As a result, they had far greater potential to win the firefight, and quickly close with the enemy. The second unit would follow hard on the heels of the first, ready to exploit the breakthrough and move through the lead unit to continue the advance. The third unit would then follow in their wake to repeat the process. If the second unit had to pitch in to help the first secure the breached point, the third would still be available for the exploitation phase. By choosing to concentrate on breaching a single point, the key to success shifted to how quickly they could exploit the breach i.e. pour troops through the breach to compromise the foe’s line across a far greater length than they had actually engaged it on.
(Reference, all locations discussing “Reserves” starting with Step # 2 leadership guidelines, Company Cmdr “The Reserves”)
Skirmishes- Purpose; for attack, mob up, or search. Pros; natural for fire and maneuver or movement. Max fire to front/bow and stern. Cons; bad control, weak flanks.
Line; each squad formed itself into a skirmish line; the instruction that the line should only be formed if the squad, platoon etc was caught by surprise seems somewhat vague. IMO by doing so if you catch i.e. happen to end up with the enemy on one side of your line that makes maxing your fire on them easy. If the enemy ends up on one end i.e. stern or bow, your unit can move away i.e. exit area quicker and easier.
Phalanxes – defined as closed ranks of heavily armed infantry.
Note: Equipment on port side of troops, and hence units on the port side, are traditionally considered weaker. Troops traditionally hampered by shields etc. Port side unit’s also defensive side, starboard side, offensive side. Your offensive units advanced obliquely on foes port units. Traditional term Seventh formation used when natural obstacle such as a lake, river, ocean, mountain, was available to cover one flank.
(Reference Step # 2 in planning, Leadership Guidelines, Squad leaders onward especially Company cmdr. “The Reserves”)
(Reference, PCP rule # 3, “snipers can be used”)
4) Zigzag:
On rushes, from the prone, lead leg brought forward, arms are kept in close to the body, with one movement spring up. Zig zaging, is darting to port and starboard when rushing. Mix it up, avoid patterns. Start your first zig or zag on your fifth stride then from that point decrease to every third. This is all based on time it takes unsuspecting foe to spot you, aim and squeeze off well aimed shot, 3-5 seconds. Foe and you are at your slowest at beginning and end of rushes or dashes. Overall, lateral or diagonal movement i.e. drifting is always best, even while just walking on patrol.
5) Roll when you drop:
To keep observer from being able to estimate your location from point you were last seen. Example: when you approach wooden fences or walls foe might be observing from high point or with tall grass when you drop down into it. From time to time you should drop down a little to one side of your cover, just after or just before it and roll or crawl to desired point. Right after cover helps you maintain speed, just before surprises foe. From stationary point drop strait down and kick legs out behind you. Support yourself with butt of rifle. Do not drop or fall forward. Split multiple objects of cover when not under fire.
(Reference, COE rule # 3 Formations “men learned”. PCP rule # 11)
6) Lay limbs in:
To minimize profile and keep elbows and toes from catching grazing rounds. Lay with legs crossed at ankles, this also makes for quicker rolling. You should remain motionless prior to preparing to move to another point. Playing possum i.e. faking death after ground near your position peppered. In general stay low, standing troops more likely to be thought of as a threat i.e. shot first, lying in the prone you look more like KIA, this when enemy runs upon your position. Also laying amongst Gear on the deck will look like another Marine i.e. bed roll and other items sticking out of pack look like limbs.
You will have more difficulty using weapons in the prone with larger magazines. Break up the regular lines of your skies by throwing snow over them.
7) Don’t look, shoot, run or expose:
You don’t look, shoot or run from same side of cover and concealment you approach. Look from one side shoot from another. Right handed shooters tend to shoot from right side. You should alternate hand you carry weapon in and side you intend to shoot from. Shoot from shoulder that best allows you to stay behind cover. You don’t expose weapons or body parts from windows, doorways, corners, over hangs or objects of cover and concealment. This tells foe what you’re aiming at, how many you are and where you is. Best to observe or fire, under, around or even though cover and or concealment and over, as a last resort. Best to shoot low through walls, rather than high. With windows and doors it is best to stay low as possible when shooting threw. Avoid passing in front of them. Watch out for ground level basement types. With corners, view around them at ground level and or at a distance. Never stand to fire around corners. This exposes entire body to fire and at expected height. With two Marines, use over and under i.e. one high one low for providing cover and or just observing. High Marine should scan i.e. observe low, low Marine scans high. This can fool Foes on rooftops that will tend to think standing/high Marine should be covering them. In general (not if you are personally under fire) when peaking over or around cover or concealment i.e. if you must expose body/head do so in a slow deliberate manner. Avoid abrupt movements. Always make note of possible cover and concealment in your immediate area. Analysis according to escape plan, protection and observation properties. Select next (if not next two) positions, before leaving old one. Move from one well concealed position to the next using all cover and concealment available between them.
(Reference, COE, Armor, “The factors of cover”)
8) Use support, lean in:
Always use support lean on walls, trees, rocks, vehicles, and equipment, packs, bub’s shoulder or back. Do not place barrel or muzzle directly on support, this slows recovery and rapid shifting of aiming point. The ground is your number one means of support. In the prone visibility will be limited by vegetation and irregularities in ground and dust kicked up by muzzle blast. Lay behind piles of rubble not on them. Things may give way as you are firing. With prone in winter skies and ski poles can be placed out in front of you and laid back at an angle over one shoulder. Or placed parallel with and on knoll supporting elbows or weapons. With bipods, a strip of cloth can be tied to base of each leg, forming triangle across bottom to prevent sinking. Also legs placed on snow shoes. Setting is best for sloping surfaces i.e. river banks, roof tops and hill sides. Knelling, with high knell, initially the toe of forward foot is pointed in the direction of the target. Movement can be steadied by adjusting forward toe inward. Elbows of forward arm kept just inside forward knee. Standing, under winter conditions ski poles can be held together i.e. crossed at handles and placed out in front. Two rifles especially with bayonets fixed can be held together i.e. crossed for aircraft or other high angle shots. If no support available lean in direction of target with 2/3 weight on forward foot.
Steady Position; elements are as follows. Support; if it is not available, then the bones, not the muscles, in the shooter’s upper body must support the rifle. Using the bones allows one to relax and settle into position. Using muscles as support causes movement as muscles fatigue. Prone position to assume correctly, stand facing the target with the left hand well forward along the hand guard and the right hand grasping the stock at the heel of the butt. Feet spread comfortably apart, drop to your knees, grounding the toe of the rifle butt well forward on a line between the right knee and the target. Roll down on your left side, placing the left elbow well forward on the same line. Use your right hand to force the butt of the rifle into the pocket of the firing shoulder. This reduces the effect of recoil. Grip the small of the stock or pistol grip with the right hand, and lower your right i.e. firing elbow to the ground so that your shoulders remain level, this balance is very important. Avoid canting the rifle to one side as well. Non-firing Elbow; is positioned under the rifle for stability. The firing hand grasps the pistol grip so it fits the V or web formed by the thumb and forefinger. A slight rearward pressure is now exerted by the fingers gripping the small of stock or pistol grip to ensure that the butt of the stock remains in the pocket of the shoulder. The grip of the non-firing hand is light.
Natural Point of Aim. (NPA) when first assuming a position, point rifle in the general direction of the target. Then adjust body so rifle and sights aligned naturally on the target, to bring the rifle and sights exactly in line with the desired point of aiming. When correct body-rifle-target alignment is achieved, the front sight post well remain on target, without using muscular effort i.e. when you are relaxed.
When taking a breath, the crosshairs should move straight down through the centre of the target along 12 and 6 o'clock. If the crosshairs move down at an angle, your elbow is not properly supporting the barrel. Or your shoulders are not level.
As the rifle fires, muscles tend to flex i.e. tense, causing front sight movement away from the target toward the natural point of aim. Adjusting this point to the desired point of aim eliminates this movement. When the Marine expects multiple target exposures or is assigned a sector i.e. field of fire, as with moving targets at various ranges or elevations, the Marine adjusts his NPA to the center of the expected target exposure area (i.e. center of his field of fire). Farther more the non-firing elbow should remain free from support.
Analyzing shot group; the shooter may not notice errors during firing, but errors become apparent when analyzing a group. If group tends to be low and right; left hand is not positioned properly. Right elbow maybe slipping. With right-handed shooter, you may be using improper trigger control. If group strung up and down; you are breathing while firing.
Compact group out of the target; incorrect zero. Bad natural point of aim. Scope shadow. Group center of target at bottom; scope shadow. Horizontal group across the target; scope shadow, or bad natural point of aim.
Group scattered about the target; incorrect eye relief or sight picture i.e. ensure your constant stock weld. Check if weapon is canted. You maybe concentrating on the target and not the front sight post. Good group but with several erratic shots; Flinching or stock weld changed.
Using short burst and bipod equipped a 5.56 or 7.62 at 300 m can achieve 80 % accuracy, at 400 m 75% to 70% respectfully, 600m 60% to 50%. With the 5.56 mm, it is capable of 6-inch groups at 100 yards i.e. 300 feet and peppers area at 1km. The 7.62 mm is capable of 6-inch groups at 1320 feet. Shooting single shot, the 7.62 mm is capable of accurate fire within one-foot circle at 880 yards or 2640 feet and peppers area at 2km. Generally a Bolt action has accuracy of 1 inch at 300 feet. AS -50 cal. semi 1 ½ inches at 100 yards. Long range goal 30 inch circle at 2000 yards.
Note: with next rule, again as with rules four and five in PCP section, the detail notes became so similar I decided to combine rules. Thus again I did not renumber rules due to personal difficulty in retaining any new numerical order of the basic rules.
9/10) Good sight alignment, and good sight picture:
Stock Weld; Assume the same cheek-to-stock weld each time. Your neck should be relaxed. Proper eye relief is obtained with a natural line of sight through the center of the rear sight aperture to the front sight post and on though to the target. A small change in eye relief normally occurs after each firing or when shooter assumes a different firing position. Thus, begin adjustments each time by touching the charging handle with the tip of your nose. You should be mindful of exactly how the nose touches and this should be consistent.
Eye focus; Dominate eye wide open opposite eye closed 90 % this is to maintain depth perception. Ensure eye is in line with the rear sight aperture. Focus on target then focus back on front sight post. The firer places the tip of the front sight post on the aiming point, but the eye must be focused on the tip of the front sight post. This causes the target to appear blurry, while the front sight post is seen clearly. The reason for focusing on the front sight post is that only a minor aiming error should occur since the error reflects only as much as the Marine fails to determine the target center. A greater aiming error can result if the front sight post is blurry due to focusing on the target.
Lighting affects the way the sniper sees the target through a scope. This effect can be compared to the refraction (bending) of light through a medium, such as a fish bowl or prism. The same effect, although not as drastic, can be observed on a day with high humidity and with sunlight from high angles i.e. morning and evening hours especially during winter and summer solstices and or when located at latitudes far from suns zenith. Lighting affects range determination capabilities too.
(Reference, Defense, rule # 5, features of recognition, objects looking farther away or closer etc.)
Sight Alignment; It involves placing the tip of the front sight post in the center of the rear sight aperture. Any alignment error between the front and rear sights repeats itself for every 1/2 meter the bullet travels. For example, at the 25-meter line, any error in alignment is multiplied 50 times. If the bullet is misaligned by 1/10 inch, at 300 meters it causes a miss of 5 feet. With scopes the shadow crescent shows on opposite side of round impact.

Correct Sight Alignment
Sight Picture; Is the placement of the sight alignment on target. A technique to obtain a good sight picture is the side aiming technique. It involves positioning the front sight post to the side of the target in line with the vertical center of mass, keeping the sights aligned. The front sight post is moved horizontally until the target is directly centered on the front sight post. Placement of the aiming point varies, depending on the engagement range. For example, at 300 meters the aiming point is the center of mass.
11) Factor in all weapons, weather, terrain and target data:
SPORTS acronym for immediate action procedures, slap the mag, pull the charging handle, observe the chamber, release the charging handle, tap the forward assist, shoot the enemy.
Bore sighting:
One way to zero the rifle is to bore sight it. First separate upper and lower receivers and remove the bolt, place upper receiver on a stack of sandbags. Look down the barrel through the breech; adjust the receiver until you see the centre of the target at the centre of the bore. IMO ideally, you might adjust the targets range until the diameter of the enter most ring matches the bores diameter, you might even drawl one using a coin, that works for a given range. Then look through the telescopic sight and see where the cross-hairs fall, adjusting windage and elevation until they coincide with the view down the rifle's barrel. Now all that remains to be done is to adjust the elevation by the standard amount for the range you're covering i.e. 3 ½ minutes for 200 meters, and so on.
Mechanically Zeroing the M16A1.
Adjust the front sight post (1) up or down until the base of the post is flush with the front sight post housing (2). Then adjust the front sight post 11 clicks in the direction marked UP (clockwise which raises the strike of the bullet) thus moving the post down into the well. Any changes in elevation required during the zeroing will be made using the front sight post only. Once the rear sight is zeroed, the front sight post should not be moved. With the Rear sight windage drum; use the long-range aperture marked "L" (it is also the smaller aperture i.e hole) Figure 2-3. Adjust windage drum (3) all the way left (counter clockwise) until it stops. Then turn the windage drum back right (clockwise) 17 clicks so the rear sight is approximately centered. Once zeroed flipping the aperture back to the unmarked aperture will zero the weapon for 250 meters. Flipping it back to the (L) aperture once again, automatically zeros for 375 meters. Long range sights are used with the M-16A1 anytime over 300 yards. With A/2 375-400 yards.
The goal is to place three rounds within a 4 cm. circle.

Figure 2-2 M16A1 rifle mechanical zero

Figure 2-3 M16A1 rifle battle sight zero
Tables 2-3 and 2-4 show how one click of elevation or windage will move the strike of the round at 25-meter zero to 500 meters in exact figures.

Table 2-3 Point of impact for M16A1 with standard sights
Note; miss print on 25 meter elevation it should read 3/8th inch not 2 3/16 inch.

Table 2-4 Point of impact for M16A1 with LLLSS
Rounded off figures; M16A1 elevation, 25m ¼ inch, 100m 1 1/8 inch, 200m 2 ¼ inch, 300m 3 ¼ inch, 400m 4 3/8 inch, 500m 5 ½ inch. Windage, figures are the same. With the Low Light Level Sight System or (LLLSS) elevation, 25m 3/8th of an inch, 100m 1 ¾ inch, 200 m 2 ¾ inches, 300m 5 ¼ inch, 400 m 7 inches, 500m 8 ¾ inch. Windage, 25m ¼ inch, 100m 1 1/8th inch, 200m 2 1/4th inch, 300m 3 1/4th inch, 400m 4 3/8 inch, 500m 5 ½ inch.
Mechanically Zeroing the M16A2/A3. (Figure 2-5)
Adjust the front sight post (1) until base is flush with the front sight post housing (2). To raise your next shot group, rotate the front sight post UP (clockwise). One click will move the strike of the round one square (or 3/8th inch) on the target. Position the aperture (5) so the unmarked aperture is up and the 0-200 meter aperture is down. The marked 0-2 (large) aperture is for short ranges 0-200 meters (or for night). This 0-2 aperture is used only when the rear sight is all the way down. The unmarked (small) aperture is used in conjunction with the elevation knob for most (normal) firing ranges 300 to 800 meters.
The rear sight elevation knob has range indicators from 300 to 800 meters. Rotate the windage knob (6) to align the index mark on the 0-200 meter aperture with the long center index line on the rear sight assembly. Adjust the elevation knob (3) counterclockwise, as viewed from above, until the rear sight assembly (4) rests flush with the carrying handle and the 8/3 marking is aligned with the index line on the left side of the carrying handle. Then adjust the elevation knob one click clockwise. Once flush, to place your 300-meter zero on the rifle, you must rotate the elevation knob one click counterclockwise (clockwise). The 8/3 (300-meter) mark on the elevation knob should now be aligned with the index mark on the left side of the sight. (i.e. after setting the front and rear sights to mechanical zero, the elevation knob is rotated up (clockwise) one click past the 8/3 (300-meter) mark. The elevation knob will remain in this position until the battle sight zeroing has been completed).

Figure 2-5 M16A2/A3 rifle mechanical zero
Rear sight; to adjust elevation; turn the elevation knob until the desire range is indexed at the index mark on the left side on the sight. The rear elevation knob adjusts the point of aim from 300 to 800 meters on the M16A2, and 300 to 600 meters on the M16A4 and M4.
Windage knob each click will move the strike of the round from 1/8 inch (.3 centimeters) at 25 meters to 4 inches (10 centimeters) at 800 meters. To move the shot to the left, turn counterclockwise. To move the shot to the right, turn clockwise. Three clicks will move the strike of the round one square on the target. A windage scale is on the rear of the sight and the windage knob pointer is on the windage knob.

Table 7-7 M16A2/3 and front sight post of the M16A4

Table 7-8 M4/M4A1 and windage of an M16A4

Table 2-6 Point of impact for M16A4 MWS, M4/M4A1/M4MWS
NOTE: The squares are numbered around the edges of the target to equal the number of clicks required to move the shot group to the circle.
. 
25-meter zero target
Sight settings; your rifle sights should be kept set to a combat zero of 300 meters. When zeroed to 300 meters, all other ranges on the elevation knob are also zeroed. If you are told to engage a target at a longer range; for example, 500 meters: There are clicks between the range numbers as you turn the elevation knob. Use these clicks if you need more elevation past a certain range. When the engagement is over, return the sight to the 300-meter setting.
Mechanically Zeroing the M16A4. Front sight post is flush with the front sight post housing. Adjust the elevation knob (1) counterclockwise, when viewed from above, until the rear sight assembly (2) rests flush with the detachable carrying handle and the 6/3 marking is aligned with the index line (3) on the left side of the detachable carrying handle. To finish the procedure, adjust the elevation knob two clicks clockwise so the index line on the left side of the detachable carrying handle is aligned with the "Z" on the elevation knob. Position the apertures so the unmarked aperture is up and the 0-200 meter aperture is down. Rotate the windage knob to align the index mark on the 0-200 meter aperture with the long center index line on the rear sight assembly.
Mechanically Zeroing the M4/M4A1 and M4 MWS. Same as for M16A4 with the 6/3 mark aligned etc.
NOTE: The elevation knob remains flush. The "Z" marking on the elevation knob used in the detachable carrying handle of the M4-series weapon should be ignored. The "Z" marking is only used when the M16A4 is being zeroed.
(Reference, Appendix COE rule # 11)
12) Aiming point lower on down hill slope or at night:
This is to compensate to counter perceptions. When shooting down hill you tend to shoot high and at night due to fact that base of target is obscured in darkness. On up hill sloop you shoot low. The previous rules of thumb hold true with general combat shooting, however for sniper firing consider the fallowing. Angles; Firing uphill or downhill (i.e. at a slanted range) causes the point of impact to be higher (relative to a horizontal trajectory) than it normally would be for a level shot at the same range. How high depends on the angle and range. This is do to the fact gravity acts on a bullet only during the horizontal component of its flight (the distance from the shooter to the target measured as if they were both at the same level). Since the horizontal component will always be less than the slanted range, gravity will not pull the bullet down as far as it would if the range were level. However the wind still affects the shot over the entire slant range. The correct method for shooting uphill or downhill is to adjust elevation based on the horizontal range, and correct for wind deflection based on the slanted range, i.e. the shooter should aim at the target as if it were 25 yards away and correct for wind as if it were 400 yards away.
Additional info to consider, hold lower than normal when shooting steeply up or down hill at long range. (At gentle angles you can ignore the problem altogether over the maximum point blank ranges of hunting rifle cartridges.)
You can infer from this that the farther from the level position a rifle is held, the less the bullet's drop will be over any given line of sight distance, whether it is fired up or down. Since your sights are set to compensate for bullet drop, and there is less bullet drop when shooting at an up or down angle, you must hold lower than normal to maintain the desired point of impact. For example, shooting up or down at a 40 degree angle and the LOS range is 400 yards, the horizontal range is only 335 yards. 335 yards is the distance you must hold. In other words, it is the horizontal or true ballistic range and not the LOS or angular range that matters. However keep in mind that perception wise, when shooting up hill you well tend to shoot low.
In general aiming point at height of mans heart for ambushes.
(Reference, Appendix COE rule # 11, External ballistics, esp. gravity)
13) Sweep against moving targets:
This is making target cross your stream of fire. Note with stationary target make note of possible cover target may seek before opening fire. Automatic weapons pull up and to the right. Lead for targets running to your right is tricky. It may be generally safer for you to make longer dashes to foe’s right. Note consider moving to Rule number four zig zag.
If engaged invaders may hide behind non-bulletproof objects like trees, just shoot through each tree. They will run if engaged in the open be ready to get off as many shots as possible..
With aircraft; if the battlefield is quit Jets can be hard 20-30 seconds away. In urban terrain it is difficult to tell direction however. Lead jets by 600’ helicopters by 150’, using the known aircraft’s length as a guide. Best chance of success is a head-on position, aiming above the aircraft. However if the aircraft is diving on your position. Do not fire at them, you well only give away your position. Wait till it has pulled up. One option is the Exact Rendezvous method, selecting a reference point i.e. concentrate fire on hilltop. Massing fire along flight path junctions. For ambushes weapons i.e. guns and RPGs should be located in tunnels, as an anti smoke tactic. With aircraft farther away, at ranges near 800 meters, try using self destruct mechanism. Another tactic used against aircraft include, mining possible landing zones. Shadows cased by low fling a/c can be more visible then a/c.
Do not look up when aircraft fly overhead. (One of the most obvious features on aerial photographs is the upturned faces of soldiers.)
Helo tactics
Try and overrun a LZ before the air assault forces had an opportunity to get organized and oriented. They also learned to “hug” soviet forces so that helicopter gunships could not fire at them.
Vary the take-off and landing directions from the helipads.
Sometimes fly in threes.
700-800 meters away and then fire, trying to catch the helicopter with the explosion of the round's self-destruction at 920 meters distance.
Soviet helo pilots took to flying NOE do to fact FIM -92 could not track targets below i.e. looking down. FIM -92 speed Mach two. Range 6 km. i.e. five miles.
Soviet fixed wing pilots not only gaining altitude quickly after takeoff but make very steep banking turns.
MOVING TARGETS
Certain situations, such as multiple targets at varying ranges and rapidly changing winds, do not allow for proper elevation and windage adjustments.
Leading; is establishing an aiming point ahead of the target's movement and maintaining it as the weapon is fired. With a scope it is the distance the cross hairs are placed in front of the target's movement. AKA Hold off, shifting the point of aim to achieve a desired point of impact. This requires the weapon and body position to be moved while following the target. A common error of the sniper is a tendency to watch his target instead of his aiming point. He must force himself to watch his lead point or chosen point on the mil scale, it becomes the sniper's point of concentration just as the cross hairs are for stationary targets. There are four factors in determining leads: Speed, as a target moves faster, it will move a greater distance during the bullet's flight. Therefore, lead increases as speed increases. Angle of movement, a target moving perpendicular to the bullet's flight path moves a greater lateral distance than a target moving at an angle away from or toward the bullet's path. Therefore, a target moving at a 45-degree angle covers ½ the distance as a target moving at a 90-degree angle. Range to the target, the farther away a target is, the longer it takes for the bullet to reach it. Therefore, lead must be increased as range increases. Wind effects, when using lead, the sniper aims into the wind. If the wind is moving from the right to left, his point of aim is to the right. A wind blowing opposite the target's direction of movement requires more lead on target, than a wind blowing in the same direction as the target's movement. Also with wind blowing in same direction, if it has a much greater speed than target, lead would have to be reduced accordingly. Note; I do not have the math skills to confirm the fallowing examples, or formulas. The following formulas are used to determine moving target leads: TIME OF FLIGHT x TARGET SPEED = LEAD. Time of flight in seconds. Target speed in fps. Lead = distance in feet. Average speed of a man crawling 1 fps/0.8 mph, walking = 2 fps/1.3 mph, double time = 4 fps/2.5 mph, jogging = 6 fps/3.7 mph. To convert leads in feet to meters: LEAD IN FEET x 0.3048 = METERS. To convert leads in meters to mils: Lead in meters x 1,000 over range to target equals mil lead.
THREE METHODS OF LEAD;
Exact Rendezvous; Preferred method of engaging moving targets. The sniper must establish an aiming point i.e. stationary point, ahead of the target and pull the trigger when the target reaches it. This method works best on targets with less lateral movement i.e. less movement from left to right. It allows the sniper's weapon and body position to remain motionless. Determining/holding exact (sight picture) using the horizontal stadia lines in the mil dots in the M3A.
Estimate Rendezvous; Used to engage an erratically moving target (fleeting) i.e. one that only presents itself briefly and then resumes cover. As the target moves, cross hairs are centered as much as possible with the target. This involves establishing and maintaining an aiming point in relationship to the target and maintaining that sight picture (moving with the target), while squeezing the trigger. When the target stops, reappears or inters the sights the sniper fires. This technique puts the firer in position for a second shot if the first one misses.
M3A scope, when using the scope, the sniper uses the horizontal mil dots. The mil scale can be mentally sectioned into 1/4-mil increments for leads. For example, a target at 500 meters that requires a 10-inch lead, he would place the target's center mass halfway between the cross hairs and the first mil dot (1/2 mil).
Tracking method with single lead?
Single lead method;
Note; I do not have the math skills to confirm the fallowing examples, or formulas.
On the method, the trailing edge of the front sight post is centered on target mass. Note see figure 7-29. This causes lead to automatically increase as range increases.

Figure 7-29 Single-lead rule
The rule provides for many speed-angle combinations that places the bullet within 2 inches of target center at 100 meters, the rule begins to break down for targets moving at slight and large angles. If applied on targets moving at a slight angle-for example, 5 degrees at 100 meters-the bullet strikes forward of target center, about 4 inches with standard sights and about 7 inches with LLLSS sights. In fact with targets moving at an angle less than 30 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat in front of target center. With targets moving at an angle of more than 30 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat behind target center. In the worst case (i.e. 90-degrees, moving 8 mph IMO we are assuming 100 m range) the shot-group center is located 9.8 inches behind target center. If bullets were evenly distributed in a 12-inch group (recall 5.56mm equipped with bipod is capable of at least 6 inch group at 100m range) this (12 inch group) would result in hitting the target 40 % of the time.
The angle of target movement is the angle between the LOS and the target's direction of movement. Figure 7-31 reflects the differences in lateral speed for various angles of movement for a target traveling at 8 mph at a distance of 150 meters. At 90 degrees an 8-mph target moves 24 inches during the bullet's time of flight. If it is moving on a 15-degree angle, it moves 6 inches (the equivalent of 2 miles per hour). Note list figures in figure 7-31.

Figure 7-31 Target movement (distance) at various angles
More Example information; 8 miles per hour at a 90-degree angle and range of 300 meters, target covers 4 1/2 feet during time of fight. 10 mph is 14.6 feet per second. Common muzzle velocities 2640-3k plus fps. The front sight post covers about 1.6 or 1.5 inches at 15 meters and about 16/15 inches at 150 meters. Since the center of the front sight post is the actual aiming point, placing the trailing edge of the front sight post at target center provides a .8 or ¾ inch lead on a 15-meter target and an 8 or 7 ½ inch lead on a target at 150 meters. This rule provides a dead-center hit at 15-meters with target moving 7 mph at a 25-degree angle because the target travels .8 inches during time of fight. At 150-meters with target moving 7 miles per hour at a 25-degree angle moves 8 inches during time of fight.
A walking target at 250 meters is hit dead center when moving at 45 degrees. Hits can be obtained if target is moving on any angle between 15 and 75 degrees. When target is running, a center hit is obtained when the target is on an angle of 15 degrees; misses occur when target exceeds an angle of 30 degrees.
Note so after all that, IMO i.e. SWAG, rule of thumb, I say a 45 degree angle reduces lateral movement by one ½ to 1/3 and 60 or 75 degrees about 25% either which away, 15 or 30 degrees 75% either which away. Then there is this; Marines must be taught to fire at targets as though they are stationary until lateral movement exceeds (15 degrees). Marines should be taught to increase their lead if they miss, which increases their probability of hitting all targets. Furthermore, impact points and aiming points generally coincide at 100 yards or less, weather target stationary, walking or running. So IMO rough estimates are as fallows, at 300 yards range, aiming point is the leading edge for walker, one body width for runner. At 400 yards range, one body width for walker two or three for runner. With vehicles start at leading edge of body, add one body width for every 10 mph. Remember to consider angle of vehicles movement. Adjust lead as you would for wind values. 90 degree angle equals max speed and there for max lead, less than 45 degrees reduces both etc. This emphasizes the need for knowing bullet/muzzle velocities i.e. time of flight and how it relates to the range, angle, and speed of the target.
14) Trigger techniques:
Use just the tip of your finger, just breathing, just squeeze. B.R.A.S. breath, relax, aim and squeeze. The trigger finger (index finger on the firing hand) is placed on the trigger between the first joint and the tip of the finger (not the extreme end) and adjusted depending on hand size, grip, and so on. If the trigger is not properly squeezed, the rifle will be misaligned with the target at the moment of firing. The proper trigger squeeze should start with a slight pressure (aka first pressure) on the trigger during the initial aiming process. The firer applies more pressure after the front sight post is steady on the target and he has proper Breathe Control; learn to control breath at any part of the breathing cycle. There is a moment of natural respiratory pause when most of the air has been exhaled from the lungs and before inhaling. One should pause your breathing at this point and increase trigger squeeze. The shot must be fired before any discomfort is felt. Gurkha weapons instructor; Never snatch the trigger; always squeeze it gently, as if you’re stroking a cat/pussy. “Take the first pressure, pause your breathing, squeeze the trigger, and shoot to kill”. These techniques are used during zeroing (and when time is available to take a shot). During combat if winded you can exhale on to targets. In other words, aim in general direction of target, take deep breath, position sights over target and exhale, shooting as sights drop across target.
15) Quick kill:
An instinctive method of shooting, aka Reflexive shooting; Used against fleeting targets at close range or during the night and in dense terrain. Also when wearing gas mask. Precision room clearing allows little or no margin for error. Too fast of a shot at a noncombatant, too slow of a shot at an enemy or inaccurate shots can all be disastrous.
Weapons Ready Positions; The two weapons ready positions are low ready and high ready.
Low Ready Position, Butt of weapon placed firmly in the pocket of shoulder with the barrel pointed down at a 45-degree angle. Considered to be the safest carrying position. It should be used by the clearing team while inside the room, except when actually entering and clearing. High Ready Position, Butt is held under the armpit, with the barrel pointed slightly up, keeping the front sight assembly under the line or plain of sight. To engage a target, the gunner pushes the weapon out as if to bayonet the target. When the weapon leaves the armpit, he slides it up into the firing shoulder. This technique is used when moving in a single file. General techniques, Butt of weapon in pocket of shoulder. The head is up and both eyes are open. Chin resting on top of stock, if to one side weapon will pull. Nose and eyes centered over stock and behind sights. Forward hand grasping front sight assembly near muzzle. Stance; Feet are shoulder-width or slightly wider apart. Toes are pointed to the front (direction of movement). The firing side foot is slightly staggered to the rear of the non-firing side foot. Knees are slightly bent and the upper body is leaned slightly forward. Shoulders are square to the LOS and pulled back, not rolled over or slouched. When engaging targets, the butt of the weapons remains in the pocket of his shoulder.
Principle: what ever you aim/point at, you should be able to hit. Effective range 50 meters. Shift your entire body at the base i.e. your feet, to make adjustments. Best to under shoot than over shoot. Better chance to see corrections needed and better chance of ricochets hitting target. If it’s worth shooting, shoot it twice. Shot Placement; as each round is fired the weapon's recoil makes the front sight post move in a small natural arc. Do not fight this recoil. Let the weapon make the arc and immediately bring the front sight post back onto the target and take another shot. This two-shot combination is known as firing a controlled pair at center mass i.e. two shots to the upper chest, then one to the head. This shot placement increases the first round hit probability and allows for a second round incapacitating shot. This center of mass, engagement technique is more reliable than attempting head-shots only.
Aiming with Iron Sights;
The four aiming techniques all have their place during combat in urban areas, but the aimed quick-kill technique is the one most often used in precision room clearing.
(1) Slow Aimed Fire. This technique is the most accurate. It consists of taking up a steady, properly aligned sight picture and squeezing off rounds. It is normally used for engagements beyond 25 meters or when the need for accuracy overrides speed.
(2) Rapid Aimed Fire. This technique features an imperfect sight picture in which windage is critical but elevation is of lesser importance. When the front sight post is in line with the target, the gunner squeezes the trigger. This technique is used against targets out to 15 meters and is fairly accurate and very fast.
(3) Aimed Quick Kill. This technique consists of using a good spot weld and placing the front sight post flush on top of the rear peep sight. It is used for very quick shots out to 12 meters. Windage is important, but elevation is not critical with relation to the target. This technique is the fastest and most accurate.
(4) Instinctive Fire. This technique is the least desirable. The gunner focuses on the target and points the weapon in the target's general direction, using muscle memory to compensate for lack of aim. This technique should be used only in emergencies.
M68 Close Combat Optic.
The M68 Close Combat Optic (CCO) note remember, the M68 is not a telescope sight.
(1) Aimed Fire. This technique requires looking through the CCO with both eyes open and focusing on the target. An optical illusion places a red aiming dot in front of the firer. The dot is placed on the target then the target is engaged with fire. The aiming dot does not have to be centered in the optic. The CCO is used in the same manner at all ranges. Therefore, there is no distinction between slow aimed fire, rapid aimed fire, and aimed quick kill techniques.
(2) Instinctive Fire. This technique remains the same with the CCO.
Aiming M68 Close Combat Optic (CCO); Note remember the M68 is not a telescope sight. Look through the CCO with both eyes open and focus on the target. An optical illusion places a red aiming dot in front of the firer. The dot is placed on the target then the target is engaged with fire. The aiming dot does not have to be centered in the optic. The CCO is used in the same manner at all ranges. Therefore, there is no distinction between well aimed or quick kill techniques. And now SDO squad day optic.
AN/PAQ-4 and AN/PEQ-2 Aiming Lights; when using IR aiming lights in conjunction with (NVGs) use the instinctive fire technique to point the weapon at the target while activating the aiming light. This technique should place the aiming dot within the field of view of the NVGs and on or near the target. Adjust placement of the aiming dot onto the target and fire. Note that target discrimination is more difficult when using NVGs. IR illumination provided by flashlights with IR filters, or the illuminator that is integral with the PEQ-2, can aid in target identification and discrimination. IR illumination is also required inside buildings with little or no ambient light. Note IR illumination is also available with Artillery rounds.
Three types of weapons carries
TAR: Tactical, Alert, and Ready
16) Scatter:
Whenever surrounded and out gunned it is best for group or unit to run in all directions. Less chance of all being killed or captured.
(Reference, Step 3 Concept of operations, Part (D) patrol order, # 8 Rally points and final rally point)
(Reference, PCP rule # 3, “snipers can be used”)
17) Five (S) and a (T):
Silence - POWs kept quiet, but aloud too talk to you. Blindfolded POW less likely to cry out. Empty sand bag over heads of POWs. Positive Intel, good sources are owners of licensed premises, cabs, bartenders, pawn broker, gamblers, criminals, prostitutes and anyone who has contact with public especially at late hours. All can be employed as undercover agents. They report to contact agent /officers. Signs and suspicious activity, some one lavishly spending money, frequently wounded, always tired or sleepy. Insiders can solve past crimes, or for tell of future crimes too. Statements are looked upon as a source of leads to substantiate evidence, locate items, and other material facts. Note an enemy may feed information about the whereabouts of clues to those suspected of being informants. Then watch to see if authorities go looking for the clues. From the perspective of the enemy, it would be best if the clue were perishable. Note undercover agent hiding note in corps to be found by authorities during autopsy. Interrogations: Interrogator should avoid duress and coercion. Interrogator can experimentally assume different attitudes i.e. good cop, bad cop i.e. very procedures to determine most effective technique. Evasive or deceptive manner, counter with leading questions, trap suspect with contradictions inconsistencies and improbable statements. Ask questions you already know answers to in order to check honesty. POW: If the arrest is based on the flimsiest grounds or suspicion, one should summit with loud protestations i.e. you most protest that you are unarmed, and ran out of fear. Once in custody relax, remain calm, familiarity breads security. Speak in court only if in position - through alibi for example, to regain freedom immediately. Other wise refuse to make statement of any kind. Always appear tired, no interrogator wants an unconscious prisoner. You should make eye contact with captor, talk about family no politics or religion. You should keep lies close to the truth. When all else fails tell the truth it wont be believed anyways. Violent resistance is to be recommended only when there is a chance of destroying the foe or when it is already a mater of life and death. Search - Watch the hands, hands kill. Have POW turn back to you immediately. Permit only one of a group to approach you at a time. Never walk between POWs or POW and Marine covering you. Search for weapons and documents. Ideally, i.e. ultimately check between toes, checks, and run comb though hair. Take uniforms for closer examination later, also with the dead. Marines should keep letter from home on them, with false misleading information i.e. parents just died, keep photo of kids you don’t have. Photos of proper, not sexy looking wife. Fleeing discard weapons in the shrubs. Striping the body (of enemy KIA or body of member of your unit that must be stored behind enemy lines) of its equipment, hide items or weapons in one place, body in another. S.A.T.; Save everything, Add to, and Take care of. Save everything; clothing, pieces of metal, paper, string. Hide items separately, if they’re discovered they’ll appear harmless. Add to; always improve, improvise, see how many ways a piece of equipment can be used. You must alternate frame of mind/reference i.e. a tree becomes shelter, weapons, food, fuel and clothing. Equipment will wear out but not your imagination. None perishable foods; boil sugar down to hard candy, if canned goods are punctured reseal with wax. Take care of; wear as little clothing as possible. Conserve wear and tear. Placing cardboard inside shoes to save wear on souls. Become gray man, blend in, and don’t ware crosses or loud clothing. Avoid first class seating, setting up front, and volunteering. Safeguard - Protect POWs against injury from others and their selves. Don’t allow items to be given to POWs. Defectors and stragglers are in more danger and more willing to cooperate. Treat POW well to nurture them for our uses. You most be able to provide food, water, clothing and shelter for POWs. Note: In general, POWs are not usually taken during attack, especially individuals or small groups. Attacker dose not won’t to spare troops needed to complete attack. Attackers own WIA need care. You might consider becoming useful to the attacker as medic etc. 50 % of POWs don’t survive. When POWs survive it’s in large numbers and or by negotiation. Best to try to hide or sneak away.
(Reference, see Appendix Safeguard.)
Segregate - POWs into groups i.e. by sex, rank and age. So no master plan can be made and known by all. POWs kept by irregulars are often treated as guest, made to wear traditional tribal cloathing, free to roam around area, can be difficult for recue personal to spot among locals.
Speed - Every thing done as quickly as possible. POW gotten out of area of capture ASAP. Less likely to be rescued or attempt escape. As a POW, you can fake sickness, injury, play hard of hearing. This is to slow things down, delay your transportation to stern areas. Information gathered, needs to be gotten to people that need it.
TAG - every POW with an ISaluteRWP report. One last use of the acronym. Note some changes of infuses include (S) dimensions and statements. The (U) who and unit etc POW was arrested with, might include Lawyer’s name. (LOL). (E) would note any documents on POW at the time of arrest. (R) reason for arrest. (W) witnesses. (P) Brig /prison being held in.
That's when you pull out your GPS flare gun. Even better: A satellite-guided flare that automatically travels toward the closest populated area. I'm sure the Pentagon has this already.
But what if you're injured, maybe stuck in a ravine without cell service? A lot of good that GPS device will do you.
(Reference, Planning, Step # 1, Psychological operations, Types of personalities. Also Planning IPB, “sponsor a local T.V. program”.)
Over all tips
Joke: try to look unimportant, your foe maybe low on ammo. If you’re short of everything, except the enemy, you’re on the front. If your attack is going well, it’s an ambush. Incoming fire has the right a way.
Characteristics of (military operations in urban/ on urbanized terrain) MOUT;
German term; Rat-n-creeg meaning rat warfare. MOUT operations may be conducted to capitalize on strategic or tactical advantages which control of an area gives to you or denies to the enemy. Major urban areas represent the power and wealth of a country in the form of cultural, economic, industrial, political and transportation, centers. The control of these centers well yield decisive psychological advantages which determine the success or failure of the larger conflict. It is more difficult to recover from an erroneous decision in MOUT. Commanders may decide to by pass if speed is essential to their mission, enough forces are not available, and logistically the attack cannot be supported. Or if no substantial threat exists in the area. Civilian casualties and significant collateral damage to structures, require commanders to consider the political and psychological consequences of attacking. The fact that the defenders are resisting indicates that they will fight hard. The first thing you do when approaching a defended city is attempt to get it to surrender. For riflemen and team leaders, the fight is to seize a foothold in a given building and clear individual rooms. At the squad level, the fight is for a floor or a single small building. The platoon fight involves larger buildings and small complexes. Troop requirements are 3-5 times grater. The necessity to provide life support and other essential services to civilians can siphon off resources and manpower. Troop strength depends on surprise and Intelligence (Cmdrs. rely primarily on human lntel for information). Troops are needed to prevent reoccupation and refuge control. Civilians fleeing will block roads. Conduct operations around civil evacuation plans. Enemy will try to blend in with population, curfews can help. In Somalia Marines noted, guerillas almost always slept between 04-08 hours. A hostile population is a serious security problem. Possible cons, robbery, sabotage, protest, children shadowing patrols; they not only can get killed but can provide information to the foe. Crowd control; Show, Shout, Shove, Shoot. The unit commander has one or two snipers who can shoot key individuals (those with weapons, those who appear to be orchestrating the riot). Helicopters hovering low over a mob, especially in a dry and dusty environment, stirs up a wind storm of dust, sand, and noise. If you have an M-1 tank, back it up to the mob thus utilizing the hot exhausts. Such vast areas are difficult to defend or attack in their entirety. On the urban battlefield, advantages and disadvantages in the areas of mobility, cover, and observation tend to even out for attacker and defender. Initially, however, the defender has a significant tactical advantage over the attacker due to defender’s knowledge of the terrain. The defender can prepare the ground in advance, build and reinforce obstacles, and select firing positions and observation posts. He can reconnoiter and improve routes between positions to supply and shift forces quickly.
(Reference, Def. # 12)
With MOUT, the attacker must forfeit, at least in part, the advantages of cover and concealment in order to move and concentrate forces; every action by the attacker is made more difficult because he must feel his way through a complex of manmade and natural terrain features. Attacker’s routes of advance are limited and more clearly defined, enhancing the defender's target-surveillance capability. The attacker must use increased communications to coordinate his forces, which reduces his ability to achieve surprise. Although the built-up area may not occupy dominant terrain, it normally has dominant terrain adjacent to it on at least one side. Doctrinally, the attacker will attempt to bypass and isolate a built-up area by securing the adjacent dominant terrain before the built-up area itself is directly attacked. Isolated positions can be left to small holding units. Therefore, the defender always attempts to establish his defense well forward of an urban area and well integrate surrounding dominant terrain, natural and manmade obstacles, as well as the smaller rural towns and villages into the defense as strong points, in order to engage and defeat the attacker on the approaches and flanks and limit the advantages of being bypassed and isolated. The key defensive concept is to draw the attacking force into preplanned kill zones. Engagement ranges are greatly reduced by urban features. Targets will generally be exposed for brief periods, frequently at ranges of less than 100 meters. These limitations induce close, violent combat. The depression and elevation limits for weapons may create dead spaces. To deal with target masking by increased dead spaces caused by buildings or rubble, the artillery batteries are positioned away from tall buildings and other masks. The use of field artillery in the direct fire role may be required to suppress gunners in hardened positions. Greater reliance must be placed by the attacker on indirect and long-range weapon systems or air. The attacker is most vulnerable to enemy fires during the initial phase of securing a foothold within the built-up area. Initially, artillery is located on the outskirts facing the attacker’s approach. From these locations the artillery engages the attacker at maximum ranges. The defenses mutually supporting strong points are echeloned in depth. Operating from positions in depth complements electronic warfare support measures and observation activities and limits the attacker’s ground reconnaissance and infiltration capabilities. The defense reverts to the conduct of defense only when; attacking forces break through defenses on the approaches. At the appropriate time, artillery displaces rapidly along predetermined primary and alternate routes to alternate or supplementary positions. Attacks are often launched at night or under other conditions of limited visibility. Added to weather conditions that limit visibility are the urban factors of smoke and dust, and concealment offered by shaded areas of varying intensities. On the approaches to urban areas, visibility is frequently less than 3960’ i.e. ¾ of a mile. The attacker may use such conditions to extend his reconnaissance, re-supply positions, cross open areas, or secure objectives. To counter this, the defense may shift defensive positions and crew-served weapons to alternate positions just before dark. He occupies or patrols open areas between units which are covered by fire during daylight. Employing noisemaking devices, tangle foot and or tactical wire, outside of buildings. Mines, LPs and OPs, with NVDs, remote sensors, and radars on the most likely to be used nighttime avenues of approach. Heat, seismic and acoustic (glorified microphones) for early warning sensors, have been used since Vietnam, and acoustic sensors were used during WWI. Current heat sensors can let you look inside a building for the presence of people. Seismic (microphones that listen through the ground) and lasers that can listen inside after hitting i.e. painting windows as well as acoustic sensors can be fired like tear gas grenades into buildings to detect the presence of defenders, for monitoring until the enemy, or the sensors, are discovered and destroyed. Also airborne or ground lasers that paint/use windows as contact points. Another innovation is the remote control robots. And so the battle will proceed with the attack of smaller built-up areas leading to the central complex. Fighting, will involve a series of coordinated actions at small-unit level. Elements are required to conduct a whole range of military operations. Funneling of forces favors the defender by limiting the number of maneuver elements that may be applied against a series of hubs that must be confronted in succession. Unlike deserts, forests, and jungles with a limited variety of fairly uniform, recurring terrain features, the urban battlefield is composed of an ever-changing mix of natural and manmade features. Frequently, larger forces will have units fighting on open terrain, on terrain within built-up areas, and in complexes where these two distinct terrain forms merge. Fighting is characterized by a multidimensional battle. It may be fought simultaneously above the ground, in the upper stories of buildings, on roofs, in buildings at street level, in the street, and below street level in sewer and subways systems. Sub terrain areas become contaminated hot spots after power goes out. Rain also makes storm and other sewer systems hazardous or impassible. Chemical agents are washed into drains as a result system contains agent concentrations much higher than surface. These effects become more pronounced as agents are absorbed by brick or unsealed concrete sewer walls. Under ground routes are of primary concern when considering guerrilla avenues of approach and lines of supply and communications. Sewers, subways, tunnels, cisterns and basements provide mobility, concealment cover and storage sites. Over pressures are magnified greatly.
(Reference, Appendix, overall tips, Sub terrain)
MOUT; overall maneuvers well be more methodical and synchronized. Isolation degrades C4I. Combat is more non stop, much more physically demanding, more hand to hand, lots of fatigue. High casualty rates due to falling debris and lots of sharp items around. Explosions produce more flying debris especially glass. Casualties may occur on any level of buildings, though most occur out side. Troop density and close proximity of combat makes it difficult to provide supporting fires. MOUT consist of ready made cover and concealment. Back door inters generally provide better cover than front. Usually structures must be attacked before enemy in side can be. There will be more damage by fire. High rises can take 24 - 48 hours to burn out and cool down enough to be reoccupied. Destroyed buildings change topography of area, making rally points hard to recognize. Use phase lines (face of buildings not streets or allies) thus keeping your units from over advancing. When possible move along main streets parallel to buildings, i.e. no crossing main streets. Best to cross streets in the middle of the block. Right sides of streets are generally safer to move down. Remain on same side of street as foe. Move across danger areas one at a time, however once the area comes under fire it is best to cross as a group, all the while opening fire on suspected enemy locations. While crossing danger areas or while on patrols in general, each Marine is detailed to observe and or cover a certain area, such as second-floor windows on the opposite side of the street. When a street is narrow observing or firing into windows across the way can be difficult, because observer is forced to look along the buildings, rather than into windows or doors. When streets are wider observation throw openings is better. Engagement ranges MOUT; may vary from point-blank to the maximum effective range of a weapon. Minimum arming ranges must be considered. Engagement ranges average 300 feet, 90% of engagements are at 100’or less. Few personal targets visible beyond 150 feet. 5% at 300’ or more. Even snipers rarely take a shot farther than 1000’. If you spot foe some distance away, take him out. If close up, aim in and allow the rest of your unit to react thus maximizing firepower in direction of possible foe unit, this is especially true in jungle combat. Also in jungle “if in doubt, don’t shoot”.
(Reference, COE General combat tips “characteristics of military operations in Jungle warfare” and “Fighting at night” below)
With two or more troops running for cover, shoot closest one to cover firsts. A foe in the open is worth two in the bush. If your unit has group under fire, shoot troops farthest away from you first. They well be the ones going for the flanking moves. Units under fire tend to make a stand or retreat vs. attacking into unknown terrain. Do not retrieve your first expended magazine during contact because it will consume valuable time. As for locations of the shooter and the target. Both the shooter and the target may be inside or outside the same or separate buildings. Either one may be inside while the other is outside. Target angles can be either vertical or horizontal, or a combination of both. Spotting shooters; by analyzing impact points. Snow can give more indication of the direction of enemy fire. Spin of bullet vs. ricochet direction? Flat trajectory indicates elevated firing position. Direct fire round will sail right by you if it misses but falling (HE) round kills if it misses by yards. Direct fire sounds like ripping canvas, howitzers a two tone whistle. Direction of sound, bullets passing by your ear well sound like a bumble bee. Smoke from initial shot’s, due to excess oil in barrel. You might want to swab barrel before shooting. Dust from muzzle blast. Black smoke from surface of barrel can be seen by observer. Also steam from human bodies. Brass casings being ejected may reflect sunlight. Shoot at possible cover and concealment points, shooters tend to be located high; foe may use one high shooter to drawl your unit into area of multiple low shooters. Periodically expose items to drawl fire, i.e. “the old helmet on the bayonet”. Lastly you may have to advance under fire and have spotter (otter) watch for enemy. Spotters should not provide cover, so vision is not obscured by smoke.
(Reference, COE rule # 1)
Orange smoke/dust indication of impact of armor piecing (AP) incendiary rounds. With tracers, impacts can be indicated by ricochets (or lack there of incase of hitting a human body). Most impact points cannot be spotted beyond tracer burn out range; around 3000’ for 7.62 mm, beyond that range you need visual aids. Scopes and binoculars ¼ out of focus can see thermal signature of rounds (aka Swirl) going down range. Swirl caused by pressure differences in air that reflects light differently. Also I.R. at night or day and for spotting muzzle flashes too. Modified suppressers that can ID units.
Vehicle commanders and drivers can walk gunners on target using ADDRACS, target reference points and the field expedient mil system (one finger, four fingers from the hay stack). The impacts from MK-19 are easily seen and can be used to orient the other gunners.
Note add Support Group/element or cell, to assault unit; i.e. CAS, transportation, air, motor and sea or river craft. To also include communication etc.
(Reference, COE rule # 1)
Organizing the assault unit:
it well always have two basic elements, first an assault element (A.E.) the unit may include demolitions experts, electronic technicians, and whatever specialists that may be needed i.e. pilot, if the objective is to steal a specific enemy aircraft. Secondly, there is a security element; (S.E.). Each Marine must know the responsibilities and roles in either element. S.E. responsibilities, are securing the area or building in the case of MOUT and stopping enemy reinforcements from becoming involved, or to stop any would-be escapers and to cover the withdrawal of the A.E. and or entire assault unit. Like with Cordon and knock missions, Outer circle keeps people out, inter keeps people in target buildings. Finally, they may provide the suppressive fire on objective. Immediately prior to the assault, suppressive fires are increased on the objective and continue until A.E. has entered the building. Isolate buildings by fire, layaway avenues of approach to building and its exits. Suppressive fires located outside adjacent to entry on the upper floor of previously cleared building. As unit inters supporting fire shifts to upper levels then to exits and adjacent buildings to cover enemy withdrawal or reinforcement routes. If your unit most retreat vacate two or three houses down the road at a time, burning first one for concealment. Burning out buildings is best at night, smoke can interfering with daytime combat. Conventional smoke screens in MOUT can drawl fire. The A.E. responsibilities are to secure the objective. The following fundamentals are to be considered when assaulting buildings: You should always try to attack buildings from top down. Know strength of roofs. Give the enemy an escape route. Enemy usually not very motivated to make a stand in someone else’s living room, lol! Attacking form the top also avoids enemy heavy-weapons positions, which will usually be located on lower levels. Considerations which will affect the decision on the point of entry; identify the route to the building from the last covered and concealed, or assault position. This is usually the shortest distance, immediately across the adjacent street, back yard, or alley. Ask yourself; from what enemy-held buildings can the enemy observe my avenue of approach? Then orient observation and fires on those points to break the mutual support between enemy positions. Being able to predict suspected enemy positions by reading the terrain is an important skill to develop. The assault element (AE), regardless of size, well attempt to close on the stern or flank(s) of an objective building, which well have more and better cover. If the building is located on a street with numerous adjacent buildings under enemy control an envelopment is not feasible, a stern attack is required. Alternatively, the attacker can initially clear nearby buildings and then attack the final objective simultaneously from the stern and flanks. Other considerations are the availability of access means to upper stories; again A.E. may seize an adjoining structure. Also consider the cover and concealment in the area. Often you will have to evaluate the relative risks of scaling the side of a building or clearing upward from the ground floor. Clearing from the bottom up may be the most frequent method in isolated, detached areas. Assaulting the bottom floor and clearing upward is a common method, except where buildings form continuous fronts. In this situation with ground level entry, the attacker attempts to close on flanks or stern of the buildings. When attacking from ground up, unit has better option of burning out enemy on upper floors. Shots fired up through floors can cause enemy to surrender quickly. First establish foot hold inside, than fight quickly to top floor and then down. If your mission requires long ropes, consider the use of 1" nylon tubing instead. It is lighter, more compact, and just as strong. Also garden hoses. Wire (communications) can hold up to 90 lbs. per cable. Black wire may have current going though it. Grappling hooks make sure there is enough rope to reach anchor point. Stand as close to building as possible assuring less exposure and horizontal distance hook must travel. Coils, one in hand with hook few in other, the rest coiled on ground. Throw gentle even lob, once the hook is in window, pulling it to one side ensures good bite. Keep tension on rope after securing bite. Scaling walls, you can climb pass windows at first, on your way to the rooftop, when repel back down. Clear rooms first before climbing to close as you past windows. Use grenades, keep weapon at the ready. Avoid initial entry at middle floor windows; if a middle floor is breached, it is used as a foot hold only, you still clear upper floors first. Each A.E. should, keep the procedures simple. Each member must know his entrance point. Set selector lever to full automatic. Fix bayonets or ready K-bars, for close encounters. Attack right behind prep fire and or percussions. Preferably, entry is gained through walls breached by explosives or gun fire. AE should avoid windows and doors as entry points because they are usually covered by fire or booby trapped, avoid obvious gates or holes in fences or walls. Move from room to room through walls. Walls can usually be breached with axes. House holing/mouse holing methods. Look though (can be as small as ice pick), also throw or drop though and go though types. Select rooms that have ceilings intact and Place an explosive charge against the ceiling and or floor wall juncture. Pros i.e. advantages, wall can provide climbing aid to ceiling hole. Charges placed at corners might provide access to four or eight rooms. Cons- i.e. disadvantages, this may weaken structures too. In general, the resultant explosion should kill or stun defenders providing uncontested access to the next floor. Charges used for breaching outside walls are placed at fire places or brick walls better to prevent walls or buildings from collapsing. Box wall building designs have reinforced concrete walls exterior and interior difficult to breach. Inter wall 6-8”. The floor plans are predictable. Hallways circle around stairwells or elevators. Brick designs, exterior walls of buildings are at least 3 bricks thick. Total of 6 bricks between buildings. The floor plans are different on ground floors than upper levels, but over all similar in area. Holes made in outside or inside walls should be staggered, so enemy cannot shot through more than one at a time. Ideally, you should start on blind side of buildings that is the side without windows. House/mouse holing can be used offensively or defensively. Not possible after buildings reduced to rubble. Again never use obvious gates or holes in fences or walls. Clearing downward, stairs are covered by posting guard, they are not used. Enemy mouse holes to lower floors should never be used. Entrance to lower floors is gained by breaching the floor/ceiling with explosives and/or using lowered rope. After entry cover entries to basements or attics first. If there is a basement or attic it should be cleared first. Never stand in front of or near a closed door; never hide by the prominent window of a house. While inside buildings continue to watch outside. Hug inside walls. Clearing is usually done in circular pattern, from one main hallway. Secure the central stairwell. Stairwells, access ladders/fire escapes, usually are located at ends of hallways too. These plus large open rooms or areas or rooms with a view, i.e. balconies or roof tops over looking these areas and other points of interest are your prime objectives. All these locations provide mobility, concealment and can serve as relatively good fighting holes or sniper positions. Use extreme caution when in these areas during clearing phases.
Note check for this note in Tri-F, a too heavy charge brought the entire building down into the basement, leaving an unnecessary obstacle. One solution to this problem was to set the charges in fireplaces where the heavier side walls of the fireplace would prevent collapse of the walls.
Securing rooms do not open doors by hand or attempt to kick them open. Shoot the door open by firing several rounds through the lock or blast the hinges, use battering rams or blow the door in with explosives. One Marine is positioned to cover inside and out side of the room. Interring rooms first Marine in, decides where next Marine goes. Example; next Marine left/right, second Marine repeats as he inters. Very tactics to avoid patterns. When possible tactics for adjacent buildings should be just opposite previous tactics. Always wear your load bearing equipment (LBE) buckled. If you're wounded, fellow Marines can drag you by the shoulder straps.
New, lighter, body army (with its quick release feature, which saves troops from drowning when they fall into water, or burning if their armor is caught on something during a vehicle accident or attack.
The stack/stick tactics;
The stack term P.O.D. point of dominance, no trooper land, fatal funnel.
Ex of stack, first Marine enters moves to far corner covers back five feet to left. AKA strait long. #2 secures door over back. Left note cover 5 # 2 door way moves two closet corners depends on hinge cover back lets back right cover bottom hooks rides door. #3fallow #1stays short covers front left corner 5’back right corner #4 fallow #2 secures door covers back left note cover five feet from back right explosives Marine.
A Spartan mother’s advice to her son who complained that his sword was too short. Take a step forward.
pausing in doorway to check stern.
1.) Stack Up In this example the element stacks up on one side of the door (where the door handle is
located). R1 is in the prone position, R2 is covering R1 and the opposite side of the door (i.e
hallway). The element leader is between the two teams, and also covers the hallway. B1
covers the right hand side of the stack, while B2 is guarding the rear (i.e. hallway).
2.) Open the door, deploy flash bang While R2 is covering the door, R1 (still in the prone position) opens the door, weapon at the ready. If no immediate threat is encountered, R2 throws in a flash bang.
3.) The fatal funnel R1 enters first, an covers the right half of the room. R2 is following
immediately and covers the left side of the room. B1 and B2 are covering
from the outside, getting ready to enter behind RT. Clear the doorway right
away!
4.) Clearing the room R1 goes to the right far corner, pointing his weapon to the opposite corner.
R2 clears to the near left corner, pointing his weapon to the opposite wall.
The far left corner is called "No-Man's-Land". Never point your weapon to the
direction of a team member
5.) Secure! R1 goes to the right far corner, pointing his weapon to "No-Man's-Land". R2
clears to the near left corner, pointing his weapon to "No-Man's-Land". Never
point your weapon to the direction of a team member!
B1 follows and goes to the near right corner, followed by B2 who stays near
the door and covers it. B1 will cover upper areas (like balcony’s etc.), if there
are any.
The element leader is the last one who enters the room. He then may issue
further orders?
This is proven more effective than the V tactic most SWAT teams up. With the V tactic you stack up on both sides of the door.
Reorganization and exploitation; cleared levels/floors and rooms should be marked (chalk, tape, spray paint or other aerosol sprays that may show with certain sensors), doors should at least be left open. At minimum secured areas or rooms are reported. As rooms are cleared attacker should fortify places as soon as occupying them. In a cleared building, reorganization to repel enemy counterattacks must be rapid. Initially (until S.E. member takes over) selected members of the AE will be assigned to cover potential enemy counterattack routes to any floor or building. The requirements are determined by the type of building and by the nature of adjacent terrain. For example, numerous open spaces require increased fire support to suppress/obscure enemy gunners while reinforcement units move across open terrain. Conversely, areas with numerous covered routes will decrease fire support requirements. On the other hand open areas are easier for one Marine to cover if the only concern is repelling enemy forces. Deconstruction lumber is used to build later wells. They are pulled up stairs during attack. Have a pre-mission and post-mission checklist to ensure that nothing is left behind. Avg. 30 minutes to clear structure. Thus having taken an enemy position, the Squad cannot relax. They need to regroup, assess the cost of their attack, prepare for possible counter-attack, tend to their wounded and see too any prisoners they may have taken. If swift reinforcement by fresh troops is forthcoming, you can use the newly acquired position as a springboard for your own advance, allowing the original unit’s time to regroup before moving in behind them to take over in turn. If such is not the case, and further advance is necessary, the Squad would have little time to make its preparations before resuming. It is during this point the Squad is most vulnerable to counter-attack, occupying unfamiliar ground the enemy knew well, having expended ammunition, energy and quite likely blood to get there. During WWII, the second most important item of equipment to any Marine, after his weapon, was his entrenching tool. Troops learned to dig at least shallow pits the moment they halted in expectation of the coming barrage. Troops were trained to begin to dig even if the objective they had taken was but one of several they were tasked with that day. This was the only response to the inevitable bombardment they would shortly endure from the defender's artillery and mortar, excepting a night raid. The only way to survive its effects was to dig, deep. Digging in also gave some added protection in case of a feature withdrawal. If no immediate advance was to be ordered though, a more thorough reorganization could begin, shifting quickly from attack to defense. An ideal position would enable the defense to take the approaching enemy from one flank, rather than simply head on. The situation around the unit i.e. Battalion etc. would also need to be assessed. Circumstances could arise where one Battalion had made far better progress than those on its flanks in a major assault. Any feeling of pride in such an achievement would be tempered by the knowledge that the Battalion was actually more vulnerable as a result. It could find itself occupying a ‘bulge’ in the line, meaning instead of there being friendly troops on both flanks there were in fact enemy units. The commander would also be trying to find out what had happened to any units covering his flanks, in case they had faltered and he needed to protect a vulnerable approach by redeploying his own men. The Battalion Commander would also have to decide whether all the gains his troops had made were in fact defensible. It would be highly unlikely that all his subunits had advanced to the same depth. Some units would undoubtedly be pushed further out than others, making for an uneven perimeter. Some units may have to be pulled back to remedy this, a galling prospect for men who had fought hard to take a particular feature only to be told to abandon it shortly afterwards. There was an equally unappealing converse to this situation. His troops may have gained a tenuous hold on a particularly important piece of terrain, pulling back from which would offer the enemy a notable advantage, such as high ground for artillery or other observers. A renewed localized assault could be required to improve the position, or the Marines in place could simply be ordered to hold on until relieved. Senior commanders were always aware that an enemy who had been decisively repulsed and had no extensive lines of defense on which to fall back himself was acutely vulnerable to a rapid counter stroke. Following assault mortars were on call to deliver a salvo against any enemy counterattack delivered against the riflemen in this most vulnerable stage as they shifted from assault to defense.
(Reference, Step # 2, leadership guidelines, Company Cmdr, “The Reserves”)
Terms; Plumb card and search ticket cards? With the term “search ticket card” IMO it would not be much more info than you would find in my Tri-F under “vehicle check point” section. Rule # 3 defense. Can anyone list these items on a search ticket?
(Reference, Defense, rule # 3, “Vehicle check points”)
Cordon and knock man of house asked out first to give permission for search. More places you search less likely enemy to hide things there again. Longer search time more by standers gathering around area.
(Reference, Step # 3, concepts of operations, part D) general phases of attack, phase four consolidation/exploitation.)
Weapons Conduct;
Small arms as for prepping your weapon for action you should smoke Iron sights, thus insuring a uniform flat black surface to maximize contrasts. However, a black uniformed enemy well blind in with the front sight post of your weapon at a distance. Always work action, to verify functioning of weapon and check ammo. Marines usually carry no more than 12, thirty round magazines. Magazine weight 1¼ lbs each. Place magazines upside down in your pouches to keep dirt out. First few and next to last few rounds in magazine are tracers. First few to indicate aim, next to last few to indicate low on ammo. Use one magazine full of tracers during infiltration and extraction, so the tracers can be used to identify enemy positions to air support. Never chamber round into hot weapon until you intend to fire. Heat expansion causes cook offs and jamming. Ammo cool enough to hold is safe to fire. Average barrel temperature 200-700 degrees. Light rifles have lighter barrels than machine guns, can over heat with 100 rounds in less than a minute. Minimum sustained fire considered to be 36 rpm or 12 three to five round burst per minute. Barrel over heating depends on weather and exposure to sun too. Water cooled systems; a steady steam from jacket meant system was working. Do not let hot parts of weapons contact snow. With rapid cooling barrel will warp. Cold metal becomes brittle. Most braking parts are moving ones i.e. sears, firing pins, operating rods, recoil springs and magazine springs. Damage accurse mostly in beginning stages. When you first open fire, it helps to fire at a low rate of fire. Snow on weapons melts, seeps inside and freezes. Hands can be cupped over breeches to prevent and protect from cold in general. Infantry units should have more pistols for MOUT. There are many situations in buildings where a pistol is better than a rifle. Pistols provide back up weapons when rifles or MGs brake down. Improvised lanyards for the pistols using phone chords. These automatically retract when the pistol was holstered, unlike the straight issued chord. Note; the issued cord would be better for retrieving weapon especially from enemy who might have taken it, i.e. the cord instantly response to your jerking on it. Revolver pros; they can be fired from the holster. Better for using ammo that is not specifically for it, by rapping cartridges with tape to fit snug in the cylinder. Would only be good for close shot. By design, revolvers already leak gas from cylinder and barrel which slows muzzle velocity. In addition leaving more powder residue behind that can be detected by forensics. Revolvers can be cocked with one hand, with out the aid of a table or other corner edge needed with an automatic slide action pistol. No ejected empty casings, thus position of shooter difficult to determine. Cons; are bulky, take longer time to load, especially without quick loads, fewer rounds available too. The 9mm pistols cons, weak springs in the magazines, which tended to cause failure to fire and the tendency of bullets to fall out of magazines not fully loaded.
When moving, use a 30-round magazine in the SAW. Attach a drum in the ORP or once in position in a hasty ambush. SAW drum pouches are tightly fitted and tend to pop open when you drop into the prone. Use cloth tape with quick-release tabs to prevent this.
In MOUT munitions consumption is grater. During first day it can be five times grater than other types of combat.
SP 2000; The Army notes that a rifle company may fire 50,000 rounds in a two-hour battle, and that 95% of this will be suppressive fire intended to keep the enemy's head down, not to hit him.
After this battle the Marines reevaluated their combat load and reduced the amount of ammunition that they carried. After the battle, Marines normally carried no more than 4 to 6 magazines and one grenade. In the Company ambush in Bala Baluk no Marine fired more than four magazines in the eight hours of fighting despite the target rich environment.
There is more recon by fire, as well as many glancing blows on hard flat surfaces, 25% of impact fuses will fail. Rounds can be purposely ricocheted, especially on stone streets or sidewalks. Delay fused rounds are better for ricocheted fire. Aim fragmentation round at closed windows or at back wall of opened one, (AP) round at surrounding framework. Bunker apertures/port holes usually weaker then surrounding area. With impact fuse rubble occurs into room, delay fuse rubble out side room thus producing more sprawling. High explosive impact fused rounds achieve excellent results against troops in the open. HE, variable timed fuses, are recommended for discouraging movement in the open. HE, fuse delay, (bursts .05 seconds after impact) are good for penetrating rooftops of structures and causing casualties within structures. The round must penetrate the roof and top floor since experienced city fighters or snipers do not fight from the top floor. Proximity fuses for keeping OPs off rooftops. Mortars are well suited for combat in built-up areas because of their high rate of fire, steep angle of fall, and short minimum range. If the mortar is firing in excess of 885 mils to clear a frontal mask, the enemy counter battery threat is reduced. Chemical munitions are area coverage weapons, smoke or CS is used to clear a built-up area to drive enemy out of fortifications or to canalize the enemy, also to limit collateral damage or civilian casualties. Smoke employed in the defense obscures enemy air and ground observation, thereby limiting the accuracy of weapons and target acquisition. Smoke placed on roof tops i.e. along the horizon, by attacker can prevent defensive observations. Sometimes screening with smoke pots, generators, or artillery smoke munitions should be considered to cover the withdrawal of defending forces or the movement of attacking forces, or indeed the lack there of. Or to conceal attacks with white phosphorus rounds. Phosphorus wounded as shares of phosphorus is exposed to air it would burn again, keep victims rapped up. When covering a built-up area with a smoke haze or blanket, it is essential that all buildings be covered. Failure to obscure tall buildings, towers, and steeples will provide enemy observers with reference points for placement of rounds. Illumination or smoke rounds can be used to reorient maneuver forces.
Grenades: Joke, aka infantry personal artillery. Frag grenade wt one lbs Avg. 4-5 oz of explosive. 3-5 second fuses. Terms of nomenclature, powder train / fuse striker / firing pen igniter or detonator at end of fuse. WW1 frag 22 oz wt, two oz black powder. TNT shattered fragments to much but it was used in WW1. U.S. produced 50 million in WW11. Avg. Battalion used 500 per day. MK-19 40 mm, note rpm fast enough and muzzle velocity slow enough that a belt could be fired before first round impacted. (1960s) wt 140 lbs 9 oz shell, 2km range 17 second flight time. AP round could breach 60 mm of armor. 100 rpm, jammed every 5k rounds. U.S. Battalion equipped with ten weapons. USSR (1970) copy MK -19 the AGS-17 30 mm, wt. 90 lbs, 6 oz shell, 1700 m. max range 100 rpm, jammed every 1k rounds some times exploded. USSR Battalion equipped with eight weapons. M203 DUAL PURPOSE WEAPON (DPW) Significant characteristics of the M203, 40-mm Grenade Launcher, are; Maximum Range 400m, Minimum Safe Firing Range 31m, Minimum Arming Range 14-28m. This must be considered in close-in firing to insure that round will explode. Range at which a .5 i.e. 50% probability of target hit can be expected: Area Target (fire team size unit) 350m, Area Target (Vehicles/Emplacements) 200m, Point Target-Window 125m, Bunker Aperture 50m, Rounds; M651E1 Tactical CS; Effective in driving the enemy from structures, the round has some incendiary characteristics. It could be a fire hazard when used in buildings. M583 White Star Parachute; Is an effective signal and a battlefield illuminant that can be placed 300 meters forward of the squad position to illuminate an area 200 meters in diameter for a period of 40 seconds. XM585 Star Clusters; Are red, white, and green; used for signaling. CAUTION; the green star cluster may appear white in bright sunlight, so save green for night. XM635 Ground Smoke; is used for marking locations; not used for screening. Available in red, yellow, and green.
Hand grenades; AN-M8HC White Smoke and M18 Colored Smoke Grenades. These grenades are used for screening; to supplement screening provided by artillery, mortars, smoke pots or generators; and to mark locations or provide visual signals. Smoke grenades should be carried in or on the pack and not on the LBE (load bearing equipment) you do not fight with smoke grenades, and if you need one, 99 times out of 100, you will have time to get it from your pack. Rap paper tape through the rings of grenades and then tape the ring to the body of the grenade, making at least one rap around the entire ring. The paper tape will tear for fast use, while cloth tape is more difficult and plastic is too difficult. This also reduces noise, and covering the ring hole prevents snagging. However, your finger can still rip threw to grasp the ring for pulling. CS gas grenades are ideal for stopping or slowing down enemy troops and dogs pursuing your team and are effective in damp and wet weather, whereas CS powder will dissipate. WP grenades have a great psychological effect against enemy troops and can be used for the same purpose as CS grenades. The use of CS and WP at the same time will more than double their effectiveness. Keep pilots informed as to the use of smoke and especially WP. They may mistake them for marking rockets indicating an enemy position and attack you. Each team should carry one thermite grenade for destruction of either friendly or enemy equipment. M-34 WP/aka Thermite or incendiary hand grenade, the flame agent ignites when exposed to air, attaches to skin, clothing and continues to burn including the metal casing. Its smoke is not toxic but concentrated in small areas can cause choking and suffocation, smoke grenades too. M34 WP often used to destroy flammable objects, to drive the enemy from structures, or to create smoke screens to conceal movement. CAUTION: The M34 has a 35m bursting radius. MK 33 aka concussion/stun/flash bang grenade 178 decimals four times as high as shot gun. Concussion much greater than frag type. Very effective against troops in enclosed areas this holds true for fragmentation grenades too. Over all MK 33 reduces over all casualties. Minimizes friendly WIA. Stun grenades produce less smoke, fragmentation smoke is light black. MK3 A3 can be used for light demolitions. The MK3A2 offensive hand grenade, commonly referred to as the concussion grenade. The MK3A2 has an effective casualty radius in open areas of 2 meters. In winter or at altitude self-propelled grenade ranges maybe reduced due to slower burning of crimp charges and propellants. Throwing range max 40 m, 10-20 m is common. When throwing during winter hands most be completely dry, heavy mittens reduce range and accuracy. Vigorously throw grenades into rooms or bunkers so they kareem about, denying the enemy an opportunity to throw them back. In addition, at night grenades should only be thrown into these areas. M67 Fragmentation when used with the M213 time fuse, the grenade should be "cooked off" for two seconds to deny the enemy time to throw it back. Use extreme caution when throwing in thick vegetation, up hill or up stairs with upper windows brake glass first, always have cover chosen before throwing. Exploding on floors made of wood will sprawl splinters down to lower floors. (At night, throwing rocks at foe as rouse grenade ploy, the third time you throw a real one). M-34 fragments 35 m from point of det. For the M67 fragmentation grenade the effective kill zone five meter radius, while the casualty-inducing radius is approximately fifteen meters. Explosives 6 oz. wt 14 oz. fuse 4 seconds. Shrapnel cannot penetrate books, bricks, cinder blocks, doors, or sand bags. Causalities 100% with in 2m, 75% with in 4m, 50% with in 6 m, 25% with in 10 m, 5-10 % 15 m, and less than 1% 20 m away. Over all less than 10 % of causalities are KIA.WW11 grenades less effective.
Flash bang Grenade using aluminum powder i.e. when it is exposed to air it burns. Same tech that is behind FAE bombs.
Flame throwers have both physical and psychological effect. They do not require pin point accuracy, but fire most not spread to structures needed by friendly forces. “Blind angle burst” to exploit splattering effects of the thickened fuel, with out exposing gunner (i.e. ricocheting off walls around corners) also “traversing burst” to cover large front. “Wet shot” unlit burst of fuel, lit by subsequent shot. Effective for destroying vehicles, equipment, or troops in basements/caves. Or to booby-trap an area. With a tank, fuel is allowed to seep into crevasses, vision ports or gun ports before it is lit. Flame throwers require no special back blast preparation. Operator most be provided cover while being brought forward. The British were not much taken with the backpack flamethrower, reasoning the operator was extremely vulnerable and had to fire at particularly close range. A vehicle-mounted weapon offered the possibility of much improved range and sustainability. Tank mounted systems had a range of 100 yards with a 60 second stream. Normally multi short bursts are used not a long single stream. Korean era flamethrowers; range 45 yards, 10 second continuous stream (fuel supply). Remote control vehicles can be equipment with flame throwers. No concern for operator, Video images are less detailed and there is no smell. Sound could be turned off too. Over all results less remorse by operators. Flamethrowers first used in WW 1 by Germany than French. British napalm fuel had greater range than gas liquid. M2A1-7 portable flame thrower effective range 20-50 m. M202 and M202A1, Multishot Rocket Launcher (FLASH), range for area fire out to 500 m. bunker aperture 50 m. Warhead a thicken flame agent ignites when exposed to air. Minimum safe combat range 20 m. which is the burst radius of warhead. Has a back blast which must be considered. Operator must still be provided cover. Used to knock out bunkers or fortified positions should be aimed directly at the aperture. Even if the round or burst misses, enough of the flaming material will enter the position to cause casualties. In Chechnya the Russians deployed RPO-A Shmel rocket-powered flamethrowers with a ‘capsule’ warhead containing 4 liters of liquid that produced a flame 4 m wide by 40 m long. It was first employed during the Soviet Afghan War against Mujahideen cave complexes, where it earned the ominous nickname, the ‘Devil’s Tube’ (IMO not tube but DICK). The 2.1 kg thermobaric warhead of the rocket-powered flame has the equivalent power of a 122 mm shell.
The Chechens were also very interested in capturing or obtaining any Shmel thermobaric weapon system available. The Shmel is a 93mm caliber Russian flamethrower that is 920mm long and weighs 12kg. It has a maximum range of 1,000 meters, a sighting maximum of 600 meters, and a minimum range of 20 meters. The Shmel strongly resembles the U.S. Army’s light antitank weapon (LAW) of the 1970s. The Russian force, to explain extensive damage to buildings in Grozny, stated that the Chechens had captured a boxcar full of Shmel weapons and were now using them indiscriminately. The Shmel was important because both sides realized a "heavy blast" direct-fire weapon system was a must for urban warfare. They also could be used against vehicles and fortified positions as a breaching device.
It was also reported that the Chechens would fire a "fuga" into a window before attacking. A "fuga" was an RPG-7 round with two 400-gram pieces of trotyl explosives attached with adhesive tape. The Chechens also attached napalm to antitank grenades, which would help damage the turret of the target.
RPGs could be used in the direct or indirect (that is, set up like a mortar) fire mode and was effective against people, vehicles, or helicopters as area or point weapons. Russia used the flamethrower to drive snipers from their nests and clear buildings for the initial entry of Russian forces.
Machine gun sections;
A four or five man team could realistically transport a gun, tripod and some 1000 rounds, which would enable the weapon to operate for a reasonable duration while further supplies were brought up. Note 1 thousand rounds divided by six round burst equaled 166 burst times three seconds between equals eight minutes of fire. The machine gun was capable of high angle fire against targets beyond obstacles such as trees or buildings, but such fire was largely speculative and judged wasteful of ammunition. The strength of the weapon was that it could literally sweep an area with automatic fire, completely dominating a whole expanse. MGs were not naturally offensive weapons. To operate effectively they needed a fixed position and access to a ready supply of ammunition. That largely limited their use in the ideal fast moving infantry attack. The infantrymen themselves represented something of a problem in that they placed a notable restriction on the gunners’ field of fire. A two gun Section supporting the advance of a Rifle Company in either V shape or arrowhead was faced with a peculiar problem. Once the riflemen left the start line, at which the MGs were located, they would quickly begin to obscure the field of fire. Unless the guns could be sited in some elevated, and by definition vulnerable position, their fire would have to be restricted to certain ‘lanes’ i.e. sectors. These would mark the boundaries between the advancing Rifle Platoons, and would have to be kept completely clear if the gunners were to operate. Such circumstances notably compromised the effectiveness of the MGs. The solution was flanking fire. This harks back to the basic fire and movement techniques
(Reference, Step # 2, leadership guidelines, Light Machine gun group and COE rule # 3.)
The Section would set up a position to either the left or right of the Company it was detailed to support for an attack. However, it was in the defensive that the MG truly came into its own. A key principle in resisting an enemy assault was to keep his riflemen at bay. That was precisely what the MG was designed for. When deployed as part of a fixed line of defenses, the crews were relieved of the necessity to ‘shoot around’ their own troops. They could then exploit the weapons ability to saturate a whole area with automatic fire, making it impossible for any living thing to move within this sector of fire. Such an area could extend for a depth of 500 - 1000 meters and a breadth of several hundred. That a single gun team of three or four men could accomplish this released at least a Squad to bolster either the line or reserve. MGs operate best in pairs. In the defense, their placement was such that any attempt to outflank one gun brought the assault troops into view of its partner, and vice versa.
(Reference, Step # 2, leadership guidelines, Light Machine gun group and COE rule # 3.)
CIS Army lessons from Grozny
These include:
Culturally orient your forces so you’re not your own worst enemy out of cultural ignorance. Once insulted or mistreated, they became active fighters or supported the active fighters.
You need some way of sorting out the combatants from the non-combatants. The days of uniforms and organized units is over. The Russians were forced to resort to searching the pockets of civilians for military equipment and used dogs for sniffing for gunpowder and gun oil.
The psychological impact of high intensity urban combat is so intense that you need a large reserve to rotate units in and out of combat.
The Russians were surprised and embarrassed at the degree to which the Chechens exploited the use of cell phones, Motorola radios, improvised TV stations, light video cameras, and the Internet to win the information war.
Russians faced lots of snipers, these were dealt with massive fire power.
They found that boundaries between units were tactical weak points, and horizontal boundaries, in some cases, the Chechens held the third floor and above, while the Russians held the first two floors and or roof. If a unit holding the second floor evacuated parts of it without telling the unit on the ground floor, the Chechens would move in and attack the ground floor unit through the ceiling. Often this resulted in fratricide as the ground floor unit responded with uncontrolled fire through all of the ceilings, including the ones below that section of the building still occupied by Russians. Entire battles were fought through floors, ceilings, and walls without visual contact.
Ambushes were common. Sometimes having three tiers. Chechens would be underground, on the ground floor, and on the roof. Each group had a different task in the ambush.
The most common response by the Chechens to the Russian indirect and aerial firepower was hugging the Russian unit. If that halted the support it became a man on man fight if they didn't cease the supporting fires, the Russian units suffered just as much as the Chechens, sometimes even more, and the morale effect was much worse on the Russians.
Chechens weren't afraid of tanks and BMPs. They assigned groups of RPG gunners to fire volleys at the lead and trail vehicles. Once they were destroyed, the others were picked off one-by-one. Chechens chose firing positions high enough or low enough to stay out of the fields of fire of tank and BMP weapons.
Russian wounded and dead were hung upside down in windows of defended Chechen positions. Russians had to shoot at the bodies to engage the Chechens.
Russians were satisfied with the combat performance of most of their Infantry weapons. T-72 tank was dead meat -- too vulnerable, too awkward, not agile, no visibility, poor weapons coverage at short ranges. They were replaced by smaller numbers of older tanks and more self propelled artillery, more ADA weapons, and more BMPs. Precision guided weapons and UAVs were very useful. There was some need for non-lethal weapons, mostly riot gas and tranquilizer gas, not stuff like sticky foam. The Russian equivalent of the M202 Flash flame projector and the Mk 19 grenade launcher were very useful weapons. Ultimately, a strong combined arms team and flexible command and control meant more than the individual weapons use.
Quotations from Timothy Thomas’ paper, Battle for Grozny: “Mobility was the key to success against the slower and heavier Russian force… The Chechen force exploited Russian disorientation by moving behind and parallel to the Russian force once it entered the city… Chechens used civil defense as well as underground sewage and water tunnels both to flank and to get into the rear of military units… Female snipers were rumored to be fighting for the Chechens… The Chechens fought in a non-traditional way, with rapid mobile units instead of fixed defenses. One key lesson was the importance of the sniper and the RPG gunner, or a combination of the two. For example, snipers were employed to draw fire from a Russian force, and then a Chechen ambush position overlooking the activities of the sniper would open fire on the Russian column fighting the sniper. Additionally, forces could operate successfully in an independent mode.”
However, I can say very briefly that the snipers pin down the supporting infantry while the vehicles are engaged with missiles. Also, anti-tank gunners must signal snipers (with flares or smoke) when they disable a vehicle. The snipers should use dice to determine which quadrant around the vehicle to snipe from to avoid bunching up. The Mongol technique of having horse archers attack and then retreat, staying just ahead of their pursuers while turning to fire over their shoulders, all the while drawing them into an ambush set by concealed lancers, can be duplicated in modern times with motorcycle-mounted snipers in the role of the horse archers and anti-tank gunners in the role of the lancers.
HRT hostage rescue tactics;
Research this subject.
Taliban infantry tactics
Why don’t Taliban use pistols i.e. where are the Jessie James of Afghanistan?
Have the Taliban used the D.C. sniper tactic of Mobil/vehicle shooting platforms?
They are extremely disciplined with all weapons and only engaged targets who were within the effective ranges. Firing their AKs on single shot. Machineguns fired in bursts to conserve ammunition.
This is a dedicated enemy that is not easily frightened: Ineffective suppression is absolutely ineffective. The enemy is not scared by noise. During the fight we observed a fighter calmly aim an RPG while 50 cal rounds were kicking up within a meter of his position. Typically crew served weapons do not dislodge enemy fighters the enemy is unnerved by HE 40mm HE, mortars, and CAS.
Taliban verses Iraqi’s
Marines say the heavy armor added for protection in Iraq is too rough on the vehicles' transmissions in Afghanistan's much hillier terrain, and the vehicles frequently break down.
The Marines have found other differences:
In Iraq, American forces could win over remote farmlands by swaying urban centers. In Afghanistan, there's little connection between the farmlands and the mudhut villages that pass for towns.
In Iraq, armored vehicles could travel on both the roads and the desert. Here, the paved roads are mostly for outsiders -- travelers, truckers and foreign troops. To reach the populace, American forces must find unmapped caravan routes that run through treacherous terrain.
In Iraq, a half-hour firefight was considered a long engagement; here, Marines have fought battles that have lasted as long as eight hours.
When the Taliban does take on the Marines, it's a different kind of fight, Marines said.
For one, the Taliban will wait until they're ready, not just when an opportunity appears. They will clear the area of women and children. And when the attack comes, it's often a full-scale attack, said one Marine captain and Iraq veteran who asked not to be identified because he wasn't sure he was allowed to discuss tactics.
Afghans "are willing to fight to the death. They recover their wounded, just like we do," said the captain. "When I am fighting here, I am fighting a professional army. If direct fighting does not work, they will go to an IED. ... To fight them, you are pulling every play out of the playbook."
Taliban normally utilize RPGs on mounted forces and small arms on dismounted troops. Often engaged the dismounted at 150 m, vehicles at 200-300m with RPGs and PK MGs, They would suppress the turret gunner with PKs and use volleys of RPGs on the vehicle fronts to start fires, not the troop compartments then wait for the dismount. Outside 300m attacks were with rockets and mortars. They focused fire on heavy weapons or radios.
They have maneuvered on platoons but generally preferred to keep the platoon at a distance and maneuver about the battlefield in defilade i.e. irrigation ditches (karez irrigation ditches) to attack the flanks. These ditches ranged from four to seven feet deep and made any frontal attacks very difficult. They well fight to the death when fixed by fires. The platoon has had great success using vehicles to deceive the enemy into expecting a mounted attack from one direction while attacking them from another direction with dismounted forces.
First the terrain often presented poor off road traffic ability. Use dismounted infantry or air assault. The mujahideen learned to take out command vehicles early in the battle. Command vehicles were always distinguished by extra antennae, and may often come to a stop first and maneuver in a different manner than the rest of a patrol.
The Mujahideen formed special armored-vehicle hunter-killer teams where 50 to 80% of the personnel were armed with RPG-7s. This could be up to 15 RPGs. When there weren't mortars available, these groups also used their RPG-7s as a form of pseudo-artillery and conducted RPG preparation fires. The Soviets tried to stay at least 300 meters away from the Mujahideen--out of AK-47 and RPG- 7 moving target range.
The Mujahideen did vary ambush positions in the same ambush site. Their primary concern was to hit the column where it was the weakest ‐ usually in the middle or rear ‐ unless the purpose was to bottle up the column.
Mujahideen received airline meals in the field.
Airstrip ? looked like a bandaid was used to fix wires to rocket casing for firing.
Deciding where to ambush a long convoy is usually driven by geography, intent and escape routes. If the terrain at the ambush site is very constricted, the guerrilla may want to attack the head of the convoy and block the route with a combination of a road block and burning vehicles.
The Soviet surrendered the initiative in movement control to the Mujahideen and never regained it. Consequently most of the Soviet actions in the area were reactive. In a guerrilla war, the loss of the initiative becomes decisive in the outcome of the tactical combat. What mostly contributed to Mujahideen success in inflicting heavy losses on the enemy was their elaborate planning, secrecy in movement and coordinated action. This became possible through detailed information about the enemy including the size, direction of movement and estimated time of arrival of the enemy convoy to ambush site.
Russian tank barrels were incapable of dealing with hunter-killer teams fighting from basements and second or third-story positions.
The Russians attached ZSU 23-4 and 2S6 track-mounted antiaircraft guns to armored columns to respond to these difficult-to-engage hunter-killer teams.
When the Soviets moved through heavy vegetation in Afghanistan, they would sometimes walk a wall of high-explosive fragmentation rounds in front of the vehicles to keep the RPG gunners at bay--or at least to ruin their aim. This is an expensive option in terms of artillery or mortar rounds, but it does work.
When practical, the best way to protect ground vehicles from the RPG is to put infantry well forward of the vehicles to find and destroy the RPG gunners. Combat vehicles should stay out of urban areas or areas dominated by overwatching terrain and tall trees until the infantry has cleared and posted the area. Moving under smoke or at night also helps. Convoys should have a security escort, smoke laying capability and helicopter coverage. All vehicle drivers should have several smoke grenades.
The Soviet's five divisions, four separate brigades and four separate regiments, and smaller support units of the 40th Army. Soviet strength varied from 90-104,000 troops.
The guerrilla mastery of the roads strangled the Soviet efforts. Soviet equipment losses included 118 jets, 333 helicopters, 147 tanks, 1314 armored personnel carriers, 433 artillery pieces or mortars, 1138 communications or CP vehicles, 510 engineering vehicles and 11,369 trucks. Many of these losses were on the highways, and a key loss was the large amount of cargo carrying trucks.
Soviet dead and missing in Afghanistan amounted to almost 15,000 troops, a modest percent of the 642,000 Soviets who served during the ten‐year war. And the dead tell no tales at home. Far more telling were the 469,685 casualties, fully 73 percent of the overall force, who ultimately returned home to the Soviet Union. Even more appalling were the numbers of troops who fell victim to disease (415,932), of which 115,308 suffered from infectious hepatitis and 31,080 from typhoid fever. Beyond the sheer magnitude of these numbers is what these figures say about Soviet military hygiene and the conditions surrounding troop life.
Approximately 620,000 Soviets served in Afghanistan. Of these, 525,000 were in the Soviet Armed Forces while another 90,000 were in the KGB and 5,000 were in the MVD. The Soviets invested much national treasure and lost 13,833 killed. Of their 469,685 sick and wounded, 10,751 became invalids.
Soviets refered to the Muj. As (Doosh-manh). Muj. Called the Kalashnikovs (Khali-kovs or Alah-kovs).
Mechanized forces usually fight effectively only when dismounted and when using their carriers for support or as a maneuver reserve. Ample engineer troops are essential for both sides.
The Soviet Ground Forces developed the bronegruppa concept to use the firepower of the personnel carriers in an independent reserve once the motorized rifle soldiers had dismounted. It was a bold step, for commanders of mechanized forces dislike separating their dismounted infantry from their carriers. However, terrain often dictated that the BMPs, BMDs and BTRs could not follow or support their squads. [The bronegruppa is a temporary grouping of four-five tanks, BMPs or BTRs or any combination of such vehicles. The BMPs (tracked combat vehicles) or BTRs (wheeled combat vehicles) are deployed without their normally assigned infantry squad on board and fight away from their dismounted troops. The grouping has a significant direct fire capability and serves as a maneuver reserve.] The bronegruppa concept gave the commander a potent, maneuverable reserve which could attack independently on the flanks, block expected enemy routes of withdrawal, serve as a mobile fire platform to reinforce elements in contact, serve as a battle taxi to pick up forces (which had infiltrated or air landed earlier and had finished their mission), perform patrols, serve in an economy of force role in both the offense and defense, and provide convoy escort and security functions. APC gun turnets lacked elevation to engage Muj. On steep cliffs along roads.
In general, the Soviet ground soldier remained tied to his personnel carrier and to the equipment which was designed to be carried by that personnel carrier. Consequently, the standard flak jacket weighed 16 kilograms (35 pounds). This was acceptable when dismounting a carrier and assaulting for less than a kilometer. However, a dismounted advance of three kilometers in flak jackets would stall due to troop exhaustion.
Armored vehicles were restricted to the roads and valley floors.
Without the ton or more of added armor, American hummer vehicles can speed across bad roads, or open terrain. But the weight of armor makes the hummer more difficult to maneuver cross country, or on bad roads, and requires driving at slower speeds to avoid damage to the suspension or other mechanical components. The Taliban prefer unarmored pick-up trucks or SUVs, which can quickly get away from the lumbering American vehicles.
If the Taliban take off on foot, they are also faster and more agile, because they are not carrying 30 or more pounds of body armor (vest and helmet). If the chase is close, the Taliban will drop most of what they are carrying (except their weapon) in order to get away.
The Afghans also fight differently than the Iraqis. For one thing, the Afghans are not as suicidal, and plan more carefully. The Iraqis favored the ambush, using fewer than a dozen people and a roadside bomb. The Iraqis were also enthusiastic about suicide bombers and using civilians as human shields. The Afghans prefer large scale attacks, carefully planned, and away from civilians.
But the Afghans will not shoot and run, like the Iraqis. The Afghans will shoot it out for hours, trying to drag out the battle until nightfall (when they have a better chance of sneaking away, in spate of U.S. night vision equipment.)
The Afghans are clever in that they will observe an American unit for days, weeks, or months, trying to find a weakness they can exploit. You cannot afford to get sloppy around the Afghans, because if they catch that lapse, they will exploit your mistake.
RPGs tactics
Firing RPG from prone laying perpendicular.
IMO RPGs being used as anti little human tank tactic, solider mentioning how he could not roll back over in a trench etc after he had fallen down. IMO way to much gear.
The Soviet Army assigned one RPG-7 per motorized rifle squad. Forces involved in regional conflicts tend to add more RPGs to their organizations. In the Iran-Iraq War, the Iranian 11-man squad had two RPG-7 gunners. In the Soviet-Afghan War, the Mujahideen averaged one RPG for every 10-12 combatants in 1983-1985 by 1987, two RPG-7s for every 10-12 combatants.
The Spetsnaz were not authorized RPG-7s in their TO&Es. Instead, they were issued RPG-16s or RPG-22s. The RPG-16s and RPG-22s lacked the range and punch of the RPG-7, so Spetsnaz used captured Chinese and Pakistani RPG-7s. They preferred these RPGs to the Soviet model since they are lighter, and have a folding bipod and a carrying handle.
The antitank round has a lethal bursting radius of 4 meters.
The Mujahideen learned that the best way to destroy a vehicle was to engage it with two or three RPGs simultaneously from a range of 20-50 meters. The chances of hitting the target with a lethal shot are greatly increased by firing a number of shots at close range. Further, the vehicle has fewer counter options. Rpg gunner’s operated with an infantry i.e. assistant crewman, and changed positions after every shot.
The current RPG 7 weighs about 17 pounds, with most grenades weighing five pounds each.
The real damage from RPG fire was the fragments from the exploding grenades. Even the anti-tank round (the most common fired by the RPG) would throw out wounding fragments for 10-15 feet. These rarely killed, but troops were often wounded
Most RPG anti-tank rounds can penetrate 12-20 inches of ordinary armor.
Without much practice, a user can hit a vehicle sized target most of the time at ranges of 50-100 meters. As an operator fires more rounds, he becomes capable of hitting stationary targets at up to 500 meters, and moving targets at 300 meters. It's this last skill that has made the RPG dangerous against helicopters.
Irregulars also like using the RPG as a form of artillery. Get a bunch of RPGs firing at the same area say, a kilometer away, and you will do some damage to any people walking around. The rather more rare (and expensive) anti-personnel RPG rockets will spew out fragments up to 30 feet or more.
The RPG launcher costs anywhere from $100-$500 (lots of second hand stuff out there.) The most common RPG ammo is the anti-tank rocket and these go for $50-100 each.
Actually, many troops have expressed an interest in just getting the RPG, which has a larger (6 pound) warhead, and is a lot cheaper (the RPG launcher goes for about $500 each, brand new, and the more advanced rockets can be had for under a hundred dollars each).
The RPG-29 is the most common recent development of the RPG line. It entered production just before the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. It is available through legitimate, or black market, arms dealers and is more expensive than the RPG-7 (which is manufactured by many countries.) RPG-29 launchers cost over $500 each, and the rockets go for about $300 each.
With a ten pound launcher firing a 14.7 pound 105mm rocket, the RPG-29 warhead is designed to get past some forms of reactive armor (ERA). The larger weapon (3.3 feet long when carried out, six feet long when ready to fire and 65 percent heavier than the 85mm RPG-7) is more difficult to carry around and fire, but has an effective range of 500 meters. The warhead can also penetrate five feet of reinforced concrete.
Soviet equipment
losses included 118 jets, 333 helicopters, 147 tanks, 1314 armored personnel carriers, 433 artillery pieces or mortars, 1138 communications or CP vehicles, 510 engineering vehicles and 11,369 trucks. Many of these losses were on the highways, and a key loss was the large amount of cargo‐carrying trucks.
Soviet strength varied from 90‐104,000 troops. The Soviet's five divisions, four separate brigades and four separate regiments, and smaller support units of the 40th Army.
However, terrain often dictated that the BMPs (tracked), BMDs and BTRs (wheeled) could not follow or support their squads. BTKs?
Forces were up‐gunned with extra machine guns, AGS‐17 and mortars.
[The bronegruppa is a temporary grouping of four‐five tanks, BMPs or BTRs‐or any combination of such vehicles. The BMPs (tracked combat vehicles) or BTRs (wheeled combat vehicles) are deployed without their normally assigned infantry squad on board and fight away from their dismounted troops. The grouping has a significant direct‐fire capability and serves as a maneuver reserve.]
The bronegruppa concept gave the commander a potent, maneuverable reserve which could attack independently on the flanks, block expected enemy routes of withdrawal, serve as a mobile fire platform to reinforce elements in contact, serve as a battle taxi to pick‐up forces (which had infiltrated or air‐landed earlier and had finished their mission), perform patrols, serve in an economy‐of‐force role in both the offense and defense, and provide convoy escort and security functions.
The soldier was never supposed to be more than 200 meters from his carrier. Consequently, the standard flak jacket weighed 16 kilograms (35 pounds). This was acceptable when dismounting a carrier and assaulting for less than a kilometer. However, a dismounted advance of three kilometers in flak jackets would stall due to troop exhaustion.
Senior leaders may find invaluable insights into the dangers and opportunities tactical units under their command may face in limited wars. Above all, the lessons in this book should help small unit leaders understand the need for security, deception, patrols, light and litter discipline, caution, vigilance, and the ability to seize the initiative in responding to unpredictable enemy actions and ambushes.
Soviet dead and missing in Afghanistan amounted to almost 15,000 troops, a modest percent of the 642,000 Soviets who served during the ten‐year war. And the dead tell no tales at home. Far more telling were the 469,685 casualties, fully 73 percent of the overall force, who ultimately returned home to the Soviet Union. Even more appalling were the numbers of troops who fell victim to disease (415,932), of which 115,308 suffered from infectious hepatitis and 31,080 from typhoid fever. Beyond the sheer magnitude of these numbers is what these figures say about Soviet military hygiene and the conditions surrounding troop life.
Units us corps x two divisions 1 armor cavalry regular and sup units. USSR army time four division and sup units each division of US and USSR time 12-16 Bn
ww11 average west division 10 AFV per 1k troop today 100 per 1k troops.
OEF Gazette Oct. 2010
The Taliban leaders quickly learned through spotters that the platoon had left the FOB, and they monitored the platoon’s route via additional spotters. Several leaders were to meet in the village that day, and as a result, over 100 insurgents were in the village.
During an ambush the Taliban were expecting the large irrigation canal west of the road to prevent vehicles from moving in their direction. They were surprised to see the tanks cross the 7-foot gap, followed by the infantry.
Tanks fire control system can provide accurate target location information for rapid cueing of other weapons systems, with the provision of 10 digit plus elevation coordinates for GPS guided munitions.
Scanning their sector with the tanks thermal sights, the section of M1A1s indentified the mortar firing point just after the first rounds impacted at a range of 3900 meters.
For counter mobility and mobility operations, every tank platoon will have one track-width mine plow and one dozer blade. There are also plans to fit tanks with mine rollers, giving every tank platoon and tank company mobility support.
Leopard 2 tanks have proven extremely capable of operating in areas where wheeled vehicles could not travel and have made it far more difficult for the Taliban to predict likely avenues of approach for friendly coalition forces. Taliban fighters seem reluctant to attack targets that had attached tank escort.
The latest rounds M1028 Canister round 1100 tungsten steel balls or the multipurpose high explosive MPHE round with air burst fuse settings can engage targets accurately out to 4000 meters.
A Marine tank company deploying to Afghanistan would be less than 100 Marines but would be equipped with 14 M1A! tanks and 2 M88A2 Hercules tank retrievers.
End of added notes.
Characteristics of military operations in cold climates and or mountains (MT):
Mountains are generally classified as low (600 to 1500 meters), medium (from 1500 to 3500 meters) and high-altitude (above 3600 meters). Siachin Glacier has the distinction of being the world's highest battlefield at 19K’. The Indian and Pakistani armies facing each other on this battlefield have been credited as being the foremost experts of high-altitude warfare. Casualties 80 % have been directly related to either cold or high altitude.
Five categories of altitude; Low altitude sea level to 5K’. Here, arterial blood oxygen saturation is 96 %. Moderate altitude from 5K to 8K’. No special conditioning or acclimatization require. Arterial blood oxygen saturation 92 %. High altitude extends from 8K to 14K’, arterial blood oxygen saturation ranges from 80-92 %. Altitude illness is common. Very high altitude from 14K to 18K’, altitude illness is the rule. Areas above 18K’ are considered Extreme altitudes. Altitude effects on available oxygen in air, at 100 meters or 328’ there is 99% as much oxygen available compared to sea level, 1000 m or 3280’ = 89%, 1500 m or 7921’ = 84%, 2000 m or 6561’ = 79%, 3000 m = 70%, 4000 m = 62%, 5000 m = 54%.
High altitudes are characterized by extreme cold, strong winds, thin air, intense solar and ultraviolet radiation, heavy fogs, deep snow, rapidly changing weather, including thunderstorms and blizzards the later can cut off outside contact for a week or longer. Avalanches and rockslides are not uncommon. Although jungle or forest may hug the mountain base, trees do not grow past 10K to 11,500 ft. depending on the latitude.
(Reference, Step # 3 concept of operations; Part B)
Medical concerns;
Acute altitude sickness (AMS) can occur at altitudes higher than 2,500 to 3,000 meters, which is lower than Pikes Peak. Disappearance of the symptoms of AMS (from four to seven days) does not indicate complete acclimatization. The incidence and severity of AMS symptoms vary with initial altitude, the rate of ascent, and the level of exertion and individual susceptibility. Athletes are no less likely to experience AMS than sedentary individuals. Some people just can’t adapt readily to high altitude. Occasionally Marines who originate from below 18k’ may suddenly lose adaptation know as chronic MT. sickness. Marines can also fall victim to High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE).
(Reference, acclimatizing hypoxia hypoxemia)
Rules to avoid dying form altitude sickness;
Learn the early symptoms and be willing to recognize when you have them. Keep in mind your Judgment and thus self-evaluation well become impaired. The diagnosis of altitude sickness requires a high index of suspicion. Be advised: "If you are not doing well at altitude, its altitude illness until proven otherwise." Some of the behavioral effects are the same as a person who is intoxicated; irregular breathing, rapid hart beat, shortness of breath, slurred speech, headaches, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and loss of balance i.e. can’t walk a straight line. Decreased vigilance or concentration and memory. Increased errors in performing i.e. simple mental tasks. Increased lethargy or irritability, depression. Severe fatigue, sleep disturbances i.e. sleeplessness. Virtually all people who sleep above 10K ft. have an alteration in the control of their breathing during sleep. The result is a form of periodic breathing in which increasingly deep breaths are followed by a brief (5-30 second) period of apnea. The cycle then repeats itself. If the apnea episode is prolonged, the person may awaken suddenly with a profound sense of dyspnea. Awakening suddenly in a tent at high altitude feeling that one can’t breathe can be a frightening experience, and is often mistaken for the onset of HAPE. An immediate improvement upon awakening usually means that pulmonary edema is not present. Nocturnal awakening with dyspnea has triggered panic attacks. If periodic breathing at altitude is disturbing to the Marine, medics may prescribe 125mg of acetazolamide before bed. Also for AMS acetazolamide and dexamethosone, but only under medical supervision. Indigenous populations at high altitude often use narcotics, such as coca or hashish, to help manage the pain and stress of high altitude. Other treatments include evacuating to a lower altitude (a descent of at least 1,000 ft. for at least 24 hrs). Never ascend to sleep at a higher altitude with any symptoms of altitude sickness. Descend if your symptoms are getting worse while resting at the same altitude.
Acclimatization to altitude;
Deployments in mountains requires acclimatization before undertaking operations. Immediately upon arrival at high elevations, only minimal physical work can be performed because of physiological changes. Vigorous activity during ascent or within the first 24 hrs after ascent will increase both the incidence and severity of AMS symptoms. Acclimatization to height varies much more among individuals than that for heat. Some people adjust very easily others cannot get above 10K ft. The process of adjustment continues for weeks or months. Both acclimatization and the onset of altitude sickness take time, generally from 6-48 hrs to occur. So, visiting a high altitude for a few hours will not necessarily predict what will happen once one spends the night at that altitude. No reliable screening methods exist to determine who will be a good acclimatizer or not. History is best indicator. The ease with which someone can acclimatize is fairly consistent from trip to trip. For example, someone who dose well on a ski patrol at 10K ft. will not necessary do well if he or she flies to 10K ft. and spends the night. However, someone who has flown to 10K ft. in the past and done well will likely do well the next time. Someone who flew to 10K ft. and woke up with a headache the next day will probably have the same result the next time, and maybe a candidate for acetazolamide prophylaxis (see medic for medication advice). Acclimatization seems to have lots to due with genetics. Indigenous people can adjust to living at 18k’ for long periods of time and can make short visits to 28k’ with out sickness. These physiological changes i.e. adaptations are pronounced among mountain people who have lived in cold, high altitudes for generations. Compared to lowlanders, their bodies are short, squat, stocky, and barrel-chested, and their hands and feet are stubby. Their hearts are bigger and slower beating and their capillaries are wider. Their bodies contain 20 % more red blood cells (and hemoglobin in the blood) than lowlanders' do and these red blood cells are larger. The alveoli in their lungs are more open for oxygen absorption. Many develop a fatty epithelial pouch around the eyes to counteract cataract and snow blindness. They also consider 20/15 vision the bench mark for best vision where 20/20 is considered best vision in a modern western orientated population were much less time is spent out doors, exercising eye muscles.
The altitude at which complete acclimatization is possible is not a set point but for most (with proper ascent, nutrition and physical activity) it is about 14K ft. Despite all training and efforts, acclimatization is not possible at heights over 18K ft. (5418 meters) in fact attempts to acclimatize beyond 17K ft. results in a degradation of the body greater than the benefits gained. Thus exposure at these heights must be limited and closely supervised i.e. Marines at high altitudes need to be rotated out every 10 to 14 days. The indigenous populations can out-perform even the most acclimatized and physically fit Marine. The expectation that freshly deployed, unacclimatized troops can go immediately into action is unrealistic. Troops can acclimatize by appropriate staging techniques. Exposure should be conducted at progressively higher altitudes, starting at about 8K’ and ending at 14K’(no more than an additional 300 meters per day above 3,000 meters) is also a general rule. The Indian army acclimates its troops over a 14-day schedule with increases in altitude at 6 days, 4 days and then another 4 days.
Other rules of thumb to consider; if the change in elevation is large and abrupt AMS may begin at 8K ft. 10 to 20 % who ascend rapidly (in less than 24 hours) to altitudes up to 6K ft. Non-acclimatized can lose up to 50 % of their normal physical efficiency. Rapid ascent to elevations of 10K’ causes mild symptoms in 50 %, 12K’ to 14K’ will result in moderate symptoms in over 75 % and 12 to 18 % may have severe symptoms. Rapid ascent to 17,500’ causes severe, incapacitating symptoms in almost all individuals. Understanding acclimatization with a concept known as the "acclimatization line." A unit’s Marines standing at sea level would each have a hypothetical line of around 9K ft. below which they will feel fine, and above which they would experience symptoms of altitude illness. The height of this acclimatization line would vary genetically with each Marine. If a Marine ascends to altitude, but stays below the acclimatization line, there will be no symptoms, and the process of acclimatization can take place. After a night at 9K ft. one’s acclimatization line will rise, perhaps to 11K ft. If one moves up the next day to 11,300 ft. one would remain asymptomatic and continue to acclimatize. However, if the Marine moves up to 11,800 ft. symptoms of AMS would ensue. It appears that if one’s symptoms begin to occur very near to the acclimatization line, the body can continue to adjust, and a day’s rest at the same height will result in resolution of symptoms. If the symptoms at 11,800 ft. are ignored however, and the Marine moves up another 1500 ft. or so, the symptoms will continue to worsen and further adaptation will not take place. It is then necessary to get below the point where the symptoms began in order to start seeing improvement. This last point illustrates why it is so dangerous to ascend with any symptoms of altitude illness.
Acclimatization to temperatures;
Recognition of heat illnesses at higher altitudes may not be as apparent as at lower altitudes, because sweat evaporates very quickly. Measures to avoid dehydration and salt loss are extremely important. The risk of sunburn, particularly to the uncovered face, is greater in mountains than on the desert floor due to thinner atmosphere. Troops who have been sweating heavily before the temperature starts to drop, should take their wet shirts off and place them over relatively dry shirts and sweaters. This may have to be leader supervised and disciplined in the same manner as water consumption. Daily temperature variations make layering of clothing essential.
Basic Principles of Keeping Warm
Remember C-O-L-D to keep warm in winter.
Keep clothing Clean.
Avoid Overheating.
Wear Clothing Loose and in Layers.
Keep clothing Dry
Heat Production
The body's three main physiological means for producing heat are metabolism, exercise, and shivering.
Metabolism; Biochemical reactions which keep us alive produce heat as a by-product. Our basal metabolic rate is a constant internal furnace. When we are exposed to cold, for long periods, metabolism by itself does not produce enough heat to satisfy our body's entire heat requirements.
Exercise; muscles, which make up 50 % of our body weight, produce most of our heat during work. Short bursts of vigorous, physical effort generate heat. Moderate levels of exercise can be sustained for longer periods, there are limitations, however. Physical conditioning, strength, stamina, and fuel in the form of food and water are necessary to sustain activity.
Shivering; is a random, quivering of our muscles. It produces heat at a rate five times greater than our basal metabolic rate. It is our first defense against cold. Shivering occurs when temperature receptors in the skin and brain sense a decrease in body temperature and trigger the shivering response. As with work and exercise, the price of shivering is fuel. How long and how effectively we shiver is limited by the amount of carbohydrates stored in muscles and by the amount of water and oxygen available.
Heat Loss; There are five mechanisms by which our bodies lose heat. Note recall RRCCE pronounced R-see.
Respiration cools the body. As a Marine breathes in cold dry air, it is warmed and humidified in the lungs. As it is exhaled, as much as 25 percent of the body's heat can be lost. Placing a wool scarf or mask over the mouth and nose warms inhaled air and assists in keeping the body warm. NOTE A/c breather to cool the body?
Radiation is the emission of heat energy in the form of particles or waves. Energy is emitted by one body, transmitted through an intervening medium, and absorbed by another body. Infrared, or heat radiation, is transferred from a relatively hot to a relatively cold object. In winter, we lose heat to the environment through radiation. We receive radiative heat from the sun, fires, and reflections off snow, water or light-colored rocks.
When exposed to the environment, the skin serves as a radiator. Unlike the rest of the body, the blood vessels in the head (feet and hands?) do not constrict and reduce the blood supply flowing to the scalp. The head is, therefore, an excellent radiator of heat, eliminating from 35 to 50 % of our total heat production. In cold weather operations, dry insulation, especially on the head, is essential in minimizing heat loss. Hence the primary means of heat loss is through the skin.
Conduction; is the transfer of heat through direct contact between a relatively hot and a relatively cold object. Heat moves from the warmer to the colder object. We lose heat when we lie on snow, ice, and cold or wet frozen ground or sit or lean against floors and bulkheads in unheated interiors of vehicles. (Bird chicken bones and feathers to cool the body)
Convection; is the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of relatively colder ambient environment (air or water) around the body.
Evaporation; is heat loss in the form of vapor. Heat is necessary for the evaporation of perspiration from the skin's surface. Evaporative heat loss accounts for 20 % of the body's normal total heat loss. When we become overheated through physical exertion, evaporation becomes our major mechanism for heat loss. Sweating accounts for roughly two thirds of our evaporative heat loss; the remaining one third is lost through breathing.
Note on dehydration; the tissues in the lungs are wet and warm. They have to be in order to work. No liquid there, no breathing. It's as simple as that. Cold air can still hold moisture, but not a whole lot. The amount of water vapor that can be held in the air decreases with temperature decrease. That means when you take a parcel of air and warm it up, it's capacity to hold moisture increases. It actually doubles for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature. The Relative Humidity greatly affects the rate of evaporation. Relative Humidity is defined as "The amount of water vapor an air mass can hold compared to the amount of water vapor it is currently holding." So a relative humidity of 80% means the air is holding 80% of the water that it can hold. Let's now look at what happens to the cold outside air as it enters the lungs. When you breathe in cold air, its capacity to hold moisture increases dramatically as it warms up. Air that went in at a relative humidity of 80% at freezing may now have a RH of 10% which means it can now hold 70% more water than when it came in to the lungs. The air draws the water out of your lung tissue like it or not. This dries out the inside of your lungs and your body replaces the moisture as fast as it can. This means you now have to drink more water to keep up with the loss. It is way too easy to dehydrate in the winter. Co-incidentally, when you breathe out again, the air cools off and looses its ability to hold moisture, reaches 100% RH and forms a cloud.
Eating snow to replace the water lost by breathing and working can be dangerous. When the snow melts in your mouth, it cools off the body. Ever eat ice cream to cool off on a hot day? Same thing happens in the winter. If you're shivering, (first stage of hypothermia) eating snow will cool you off even more and make the situation worse. However, if you're starting to overheat, by all means, go ahead and eat clean snow. It will cool you off and solve the pesky overheating problem.
Other medical concerns;
UV eye protective goggles should be used when the sun is shining through fog or clouds; a bright, cloudy day is deceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyes as a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglasses are worn to shade the eyes from the rays of the sun that are reflected by the snow. Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in that a deep burn may be received before discomfort is felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglasses must be used from the start of exposure. Waiting for the appearance of discomfort is too late. The condition heals in a few days without permanent damage once unprotected exposure to sunlight is stopped. The risk of snow blindness is increased at high altitudes because the clear air allows more sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. If sunglasses are lost or broken, a substitute can be improvised by cutting thin (IMO 1/16 inch) by 3 cm (l") long slits through a scrap of wood or cardboard approximately 15 cm (6") long and 3 cm (1") wide. (This works because the suns rays are vertical vs. horizontal slit of Eskimo goggles).
Everyone well experience an impairment of night vision and constriction in peripheral vision (up to 30 % at 6K’). Personnel who have had radial keratotomy corrective eye surgery should not go to high altitudes because their vision may permanently cloud.
Superficial bullet and shrapnel wounds can quickly turn fatal at altitude. Soviet experience in the mountains of Afghanistan proved that 13 to 15 men might be involved in carrying one patient. Exertion at altitude is difficult and the stretcher party has to provide its own security as well. Patients cannot be effectively treated at altitude, but have to be evacuated to lower altitudes to survive.
General combat tips
Employment of the local population is most advantageous. Units will make more use of local populations, for intelligence about terrain and weather. Aircraft well be used more for weather, recon, and messages. Aerial photos oblique as well as vertical must be studied. In winter, short hours of daylight, fog, snowfall, blizzards, whiteouts, and drifting snow, especially above tree line, drastically limit visibility. At times, an overcast sky and snow-covered terrain create a phenomenon called flat light, which makes recognition of irregularities in the terrain extremely difficult. Heavy snow can change topography making rally points difficult to recognize, shadows and dark objects appear darker than usual. Snow and ice on crest blasted by the winds will be sculptured into odd- shaped drifts. It is relatively easier to conceal troops in barren mountains than on the desert floor due to rugged ground, deep shadows (especially at dawn and dusk), and the difficulties an observer encounters when establishing perspective. (Sinai) With barren mountains, the normal type camouflage net, which breaks up outline by shadow, maybe used rather than the overall cover normally used in the desert. NOTE one Marine moving out from under netting carrying tether rope for extension netting. Rope shot out in front of patrol over a tree branch or some anchor to secure rope to be used to string netting across route. Carefully placed rocks can be used to hide equipment, however rocks well chip and splinter under small arms fire.
Keep in mind Marines must be in peak physical condition. And will require additional stimuli and energy. Calorie intake of up to 6K calories per day. Short, wiry Marines are preferred to tall, muscular Marines. Those selected should have above-average intelligence to allow them to more-readily adapt to the trying terrain. Even the physically fit Marine experiences physiological and psychological degradation when at high elevations. During the first few days at high altitude, leaders have extreme difficulty in maintaining a coordinated unit.
Air transportation may be limited by scarcity of landing sites. Marines delivered by helicopters are less fatigued for fighting. Helicopters are inhibited by altitude and rugged terrain. Payloads and endurance are degraded due to thin air at attitude. Winds are turbulent with considerable fluctuations in air flow strength and direction, particularly on the lee side of mountains. These winds, combined with the terrain, produce extra strain on crews as they have little margin for error. Air assaults from 8K-10K ft. are best conducted by the CH-47. Helicopters providing excellent mobility but no surprise. NOTE pilots oxygen required? Fuel tanks are completely filled with the correct fuel and oil mixture to eliminate condensation. Pilots should never follow a predictable route, including rivers, canyons, streets or roads, for any length of time. Keep intervals of at least 500 yards so all aircraft are free to maneuver and fire guns. Avoid ground lights at night even a trash barrel fire can illuminate the rotors. If aircraft not available, reserves may have to be split up and placed behind key terrain, immediately available. Infantry must seek restrictive terrain to naturalize an enemy's mounted or air mobility advantage. If retrograde (moving backwards) operations are necessary, mountainous terrain is as good a place to conduct them as anywhere. More time is required to reconnoiter and prepare rearward positions. Unlike the desert floor where movement between positions is likely to cover relatively great distances, movement in these conditions is usually from ridge to ridge. Routes must be covered by flank guards, especially at defiles.
Terrain and weather gives battle a piece meal character. There are few approach routes and most of those are along valleys, which are covered by air defense and infantry forces using massed fire. Mountains restrict effective bombing and strafing by jet aircraft.
Time and space factors are extremely fluid. Varying sharply in response to weather and altitude, distance is measured in terms of time and energy. Distance between two points is as much vertical as horizontal. Up hill very slow, down hill can be very fast. This can be important with calculating return tip. More time required for Medical evacuations and all phases of operations. Extreme northern latitudes/Tundra terrain permits unrestricted maneuvers.
Patrols are used extensively to harass the enemy and prevent infiltration. With both environments, it is common to have small units widely dispersed, operating at great distances from other small units or there Command organizations. Requires extra radios, radars/sensors for the numerous OPs or LPs and other positions. Decentralization leads to poor control, more of a problem for offence.
In extreme north, tundra or mountains objectives should be limited, operations are conducted for specific goals, and this is true for Desert ops too. Strong points are easy to isolate and are buy passed more. Key objectives dominate terrain; vantage points for artillery and observation are a must.
Assaults; raid basics apply i.e. normally incorporate an assault element, a security element and a fire support element.
Modifying the TOE of units is likely. Example, an antitank platoon may not be necessary. The mobility, versatility in weapons and the self sufficient nature of the infantry unit, means they well do most of the fighting. In mountain, warfare (MT) mass is not as important as speed, where numbers are often a con, along with road bound vehicles. As a rule of thumb skies are left in a pre-assault position, as close combat on foot is easier to execute. Conversely deep snow may force unit to close on objective on skies. You can advance or retreat with fogs on MT. slopes, attack right behind storms. During blizzards or blowing snow the attacker should if possible keep 3200 mils, 180 degree arch to enemy unit’s stern or flank. Attack out of sun. Units well conduct more Night operations, the best opportunities are at night or during very poor visibility. Day time mostly spent in defense on reverse slopes. In extreme northern latitudes there are lots of flanking and frontal attacks on broad fronts. MT. Flank attacks on foot take a lot of time. Frontal attacks in day light through narrow sectors have little chance.
“Move alongside a column of troops 300 to 500 yards from them. Inside 200 yards you are vulnerable to SAWs and RPGs. Outside 600 yards you are vulnerable to artillery and air strikes. Stay in the safety zone; fire when there is an obstacle to shoot over such as a ditch.” And or when there is cover and or at least concealment. MT. particularly well suited for surprise ambushes lots of cover. Under favorable circumstances, the enemy can only see as far as 100 yards into open woods. (Note capabilities of sensors at angles to forest while in flight). In woods, Marines can be equipped with armor piercing ammo. Unnecessary vertical foot or vehicle movement should be avoided. Do not easily i.e. readily give up elevation gained. Make every effort to secure ground higher than enemy positions to allow the attack to be downhill. It may be possible to infiltrate to a position behind the enemy, preferably using the most difficult and hence unlikely route. Although this is very slow, it normally has the advantage of surprise. Positions in the enemy's stern might provide opportunity to kill the enemy as they reposition for or during their counterattack. The importance of dominate terrain, together with the enemy's knowledge that troops on the objective will be physically tired and dehydrated, makes an immediate counterattack lucrative. Reserves should be kept centrally located and or deployed by air to block or counterattack.
Weapons employment
Field artillery observation posts are emplaced on the highest ground available, although in low-cloud conditions it will be necessary to ensure that they are staggered in height. Predicting fire (i.e. firing tables) may be inaccurate due to rapidly changing weather conditions also making observed fire the best method. It may be difficult to find good gun positions at lower altitudes due to crest clearance problems so high-angle fire is often used. Artillery positions should be on reverse slopes and as close to the crest as possible-considering crest clearance and flash-cover. Individual guns should be sited in terrain folds and other places where they are naturally concealed. Artillery cannot be readily moved where there are not roads. Artillery positions are usually located where ammunition can be delivered-in valleys, villages, and near road heads. Mortars are frequently more effective than guns or howitzers (due to high-angle fire). They are easier to shift around, can better engage reverse slopes and can be moved closer to the forward posts. In general, the best weapons are light artillery and mortars that are airmobile and can be manhandled so they can be positioned as high as possible. There is limited use for self-propelled weapons, although they may be used in valleys. It’s difficult to provide cover fire, especially for troops attacking down hill on reverse slopes. With snow and soft ground the effects of supporting fires over all is lessened.
(Reference Defense, over all tips, “There is considerable divergence of opinion” with reverse slopes etc.)
Mobility;
Because of difficulty in re-supply, the supply points will become especially lucrative targets. Bridges tunnels and passes are very important.
Because of the frequent interdictions of mountain roadways, military police are used to expedite traffic movement to the front. More engineer troops are needed, major tasks for engineers; Assist in selection, construction, improvement, and route repair, bridging or drainage to counter the problem of flash flooding and the denial of all to the enemy. De-mining is important due to the limited number of routes.
Vehicles;
Wheeled-vehicle transportation (trucks, mules, snowmobiles) should be employed as far forward as possible.
In Afghanistan, Canadian Army used small unit support vehicles (SUSV) i.e. quad runners to move over the terrain at high-altitude, allowing the infantry to ride or transport their loads into battle. These vehicles afforded some small arms protection.
Trucks, helicopters, mechanical mules, and snowmobiles (snow mobiles are capable of climbing 40 degree slopes) are key to mountain logistics, but above 13K ft. the logistics effort shifts to the backs of mules and porters.
Gasoline-powered trucks are clearly preferred over diesel. As the truck ascends the amount of oxygen available is reduced and the engine efficiency drops off. Cross-country and climbing capability decline as fuel usage soars. Gasoline engines may need their carburetors adjusted and Diesels may need to be fitted with turbochargers. In the mountains on average, vehicles lose 20 to 25 % of their rated carrying capability (i.e. vehicle engines lose 10-20 % of the horse power at 7k’, gas dose better) and can use up to 75 % more fuel. Military generators and vehicles are often diesel-powered, but standard diesel engines lose efficiency at 10K ft. and eventually stop functioning altogether because of insufficient oxygen.
Average increase in fuel consumption at altitude; (keep in mind head winds can increase consumption by 10%). Figures are for the number of gallons used per 100 km.
Conditions; with good maintenance, good roads.
Low Altitude (below 3km); 3 to 5% slope light vehicles (gas) average load uses 16 gallons. Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 25 gallons, unloaded 20 gallons.
Low Altitude; 6 to 8% slope light Vehicles (gas) average load uses 17 gallons. Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 30 gallons, unloaded 25 gallons.
Medium Altitude (up to 3km) ; 3 to 5% slope light vehicles (gas) average load 17 gallons, Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 30 gallons, unloaded 25 gallons.
Medium Altitude; 6 to 8% lt veh. Avg. 18, Trucks loaded 32 gals. Unloaded 27 gals.
High Altitude (3km to 4km); 3 to 5% slope, lt. veh. 18 gals. Trucks loaded 32 gals. Unloaded 27 gals.
High Altitude; 6 to 8% slope lt. veh. 20 gals. Trucks loaded 35 gals. Unloaded 30 gals.
High Altitude; (above 4km) 3 to 5% slope lt. veh. 20 gals. Truck loaded 35 gals. Unloaded 30 gals.
High Altitude; 6 to 8% slope lt. veh. 25 gals. Truck loaded 38 gals. Unloaded 33 gals.
Animals and porters;
Beyond the limits of wheeled transport, the only alternatives are animals or porters (which may need to be acclimatized). Many ungulate (having hoofs) species are traditional pack animals, including elephants, camels, the yak, reindeer, goats, water buffalo, llama, Alpacas and mules used to pack loads on the back, pull wagons, and or some could be ridden. Camels can smell humans 4 miles away and see them 2 miles away. Camels in Arabia can brink 50 gallons of water. The Bactrian Camel most eat snow (this in Mongolia) limiting its self to two gallons a day to prevent to much cooling of the body. Oxen can be slaughtered and eaten when meat is low and wild game impossible to find or tactical situation prevents hunting (horsemeat is eatable but tuff). Mules have more stamina and are more sure-footed than horses and have more resistance to disease. Summed up by George Washington; "Horses eat too much, work too little, and die too young." However, mules are subject to colic, heat exhaustion, injuries, and wounds. Most injuries and wounds result from poorly adjusted saddles, pack frames and harnesses. Stones, rocks, and debris on the trail can also wound a mule's hoof. Local mules are more immune to disease at altitude than humans and all mules have a keen sense of self-preservation that keeps them alive in mountain storms. Mules require a great deal of daily care and training. Muleteers, farriers, blacksmiths, and large animal veterinarians, who have been absent from many armies for decades, are essential for mule-borne logistics. Mules need new shoes every 30 days and there are special mule shoes for snow and ice.
Mules; are 12 to 17.5 hands (50 to 70 inches in height and weigh 600 to 1,500 lbs. The average donkey stands about 40 inches in height at the shoulders, but breeds range from 24 to 66 inches. Mule’s travel at 2½ mph. Oxen are slower, at 2 m.p.h. The ½-mile faster speed can save a week or more over long distances. Oxen can graze along the trail, but mules must be fed grain to supplement the grazing. American mules require 10 lbs of grain and 14 pounds of hay per day, which also becomes part of the logistics load therefore, less paying/combat freight can be hauled. The smaller mules of Argentina require 8 lbs of grain and 8 lbs of hay per day. Mules could go 24 hrs without water when they had a light load i.e. under 300 lbs. Mules can consume 25 to 30 liters of water a day and up to 50 liters in desert terrain. They also require a daily ounce of salt.
In WWI or II the standard army mule load was about 150 lbs. American mules can carry up to 20 % of their body weight (150-300 pounds) for 15 to 20 miles per day in mountains. Smaller mules in other locales will carry less. The maximum carrying weight for an Argentine mule is between 200 and 250 lbs. However, this is for low- and medium-altitudes. At high altitude, the maximum carrying weight drops below 200 lbs. Like humans, mules require time to acclimate to altitude. Muleteers and mules require about a month's training to get them ready to work above 3,000 meters. Like humans, mules tire easily above 4,000 meters and need to be rested frequently. Mules also have to be trained not to fear the noise of firearms and explosives so that they do not run off during a patrol.
Organized mule cargo units, rather than ad hoc teams led by local teamsters, are the preferred option, but local mules are always preferred over deployed mules. Equipage is a horse drawn carriage usually with its attendant servants. Since much of the material will be kept in dumps and moved in stages, the commander has to keep his transport requirements in hand. Energy conservation requires additional routines to deploy the logistics (like rations to the platoon, mortar rounds to the mortars).
General load information to consider;
Requirements for Infantry Company (180) planning a mountain march, attack and defense lasting for a total of 6 days. Note these figures do not include supplies carried by each Marine. Rations 1620 kilos, water (drink and cocking) 2,262 kilos (2565 liters). Ammunition 1,021 kilos.
Small mules carry 80 kilos, big mules up to 150 kilos.
Mule total 60 – 80. mules to carry 5,620 kilos of fodder, 4060 kilos of grain, 348 kilos of salt, and 18,416 kilos of water.
Consumption of water and wood; low and medium altitudes, man drinking 1.5 to 2 liters, cocking 5 liters. Animal summer 15 liters winter 10 liters. High altitude man drinking 2 to 2.5 liters, cocking 8 liters. Animals summer 15 liters, winter 10 liters.
Wood cocking uncovered at low altitude, 1kg per man, same for heating tent or shelter and in open.
Wood cocking uncovered at high attitude, 1kg per Marine, heating tent or shelter 1kg per Marine every 6 hours, in open 1kg per Marine every two hours.
Porters; Mules cannot reach the higher elevations, and porters must haul the supplies forward. Although a porter cannot carry as much as a mule, they can move in places where mules cannot. However, porters will probably be reluctant to work too far away from their homes and villages. There is always a security consideration when using local porters. Short, wiry porter are preferred to tall, muscular porters. Selected porters should have above-average intelligence to allow them to more-readily adapt to the trying terrain.
Cargo capabilities; on foot up to 3kms Porter 20kg at 3-4km 20kg above 4km 15kg or less.
Marines up to 3km 15kg 3-3km 10-12kg above 4km 8-12kg.
On skis up to 3km porter 20kg 3-4km 12-15kg above 4km 12kg or less. Marine up to 3km 12kg 3-4km 12kg above 4km 10kg or less.
Physical performance; starts to be affected at about 1,000 meters altitude; the effect is not linear and the drop in performance is quite different for acclimated versus unacclimated individuals. A runner who is not acclimated will lose 10 to 12% in VO2max at an altitude of about 6,500 feet and 12 to 15% at 7,500 feet. However, performance will not be to the same degree because running economy is better at altitude (due to the less dense air resistance). Research at 6,500 feet indicated a 12% loss of VO2max, but 6% improvement in running economy resulting in 6% loss in performance. The duration of a run is also a factor. An 800-meter run is so anaerobic that little performance difference exists. A 1,500-meter run may be 6 to 10 seconds slower, but over 20 seconds slower for unacclimated runners. An unacclimated runner could expect to lose a minute in 5K and as much as two minutes for a 10K. Average for a 5k run 13 min. 10k run 27 minutes.
Characteristics of military operations in Jungle warfare:
Panic and phobias are magnified, fratricide dangers are high. During the night there are many more natural noises. Ambushes are used extensively they are multi-phase operations and are planned in some detail. First a suitable killing zone (K.Z.) is identified. It is a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and gives cover for the deployment then waiting and execution then extraction phases. The patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness, and will need to leave the area as soon as practical by a pre-determined route. Usually, two or more S.E. will be sent out a short distance from the K.Z. Their job is two fold; one to give early-warning of approaching enemy, and secondly, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemy from escaping. Having set the ambush, the next phase is to wait. Executing an ambush, initiate it with an explosive device (such as a claymore mine). Note most crew serve MGs with open bolts give warning of opening fire. Afterwards clear the K.Z. by checking bodies for intelligence. Attacking troops in a thicket. First post Marines at corners. Machine gun small sections. Adjust/shift Marines and fire etc. In the jungle you must operate with combatant units at close ranges and possibly in all directions. It’s almost always best to be in line/column formations. When in doubt don’t shoot. Helicopters provide excellent mobility but no surprise. Inspect foliage closely, broken leaves, twigs, etc., often indicate when and in what direction the enemy has passed and how many were in the group. The amount of sap oozing from a broken limb can indicate time of passing. The steep hills and the dense vegetation and swamps tend to ‘canalize’ our advance. It is next to impossible to have flank security patrolling abreast of a moving column. It is difficult to send units more than a hundred feet to a flank and maintain contact with them. If we try to make any headway we have to risk exposed flanks. Patrols tend to try to reach objectives too quickly, moving too rapidly i.e. nosily through the brush. Maneuver option, a base of fire should be advanced along the ridges. “When encountering enemy on the move, our units had more success and suffered fewer casualties by opening fire and rushing through, than by trying to take cover and envelope the enemy. Grenades are more useful than rifles in patrol work. Any equipment which must be abandoned should be buried and camouflaged. Rifles can be kept perfectly dry at night by placing them on sticks, several inches off the ground and covering them with banana leaves. “It is noteworthy” that in the defense, each unit, even the squad established itself so as to provide all around security during darkness. With positions make use of varying elevations. In organizing the area defense all automatic weapons were sighted on sectors of fire coordinated with adjacent units. However, it was a standing rule that weapons never be fired at night, except to repulse a major night attack. In order to safeguard personnel and to avoid disclosing the position of automatic weapons, only knives and bayonets were used to take out small infiltrating parties. To guard against attacks after dark, we would set up the machine gun at one place, and then immediately after dark the gun would be moved to another prepared location. It was required that every telephone/radio be manned continuously from dark to daylight, eliminating the necessity of ringing. Therefore, whenever anything occurred, all leaders within the position instantly knew the situation.”
(Reference, Night Fighting below)
V/C not yelling at all when wounded or dying. Me what about Tali ban, or most any other foreigners?
Medivacs; total 406 thousand patients including 168 thousand combat casualties. Between 65-73 high velocity round effect i.e. wound track, tissue damage to organs and blood vessels too. And explosion victims with large fragments and very dirty wounds meant the victim was close to explosion.
Causalities Vietnam, small arms 51% of KIAs, 16% of WIA. Fragments 36% KIA, 65% WIA. Booby traps/mines 11% KIA = 4000, 15% WIA. Punji stakes only 2 % WIA. Others cause 2% KIA, 2% WIA.
WWII small arms 32 % and Korea 33%.
Vietnam, impact points of rounds on body; KIA, 16% muti-sites, 1% arms , 7% legs, 18% growing /abs, 19% upper torso , 39% head. WIA 20% multi site, arms 36%, legs, 5% groin, 7% upper torso, 14% head.
I don’t know the timeliness of the fallowing info I checked the site last mouth, OEF 175 KIA by small arms fire, total of both wars 1373 with 257 US Marines. This according to icasualties.com.
Fighting at night,
Night ops, radios are turned down. Make use of ear phones if available. Note in MT or cold weather warfare of WWII “fighting for the little kingdoms”/fighting holes, to retreat into the country side meant death by exposure. Close in night fighting combatants have instinctive tendency to form groups under low light conditions. You should move more frequently, farther and faster at night especially after contact with foe. Silence voice wise will make foe nervous, cause foe to shoot more. Muzzle flashes will give away locations, that’s were you though grenades, or attack with bayonets. Use extreme caution when throwing in thick brush or up hill. Throwing rocks at foe (especially down hill) as rouse grenade attack, the 3rd time you use real grenade.
(Reference, COE Over all tips, “if you spot foe” and Jungle warfare “It is noteworthy” above)
Knife fighting, Romans taught to thrust not slash. With swords/knifes slashes with the edge, though made with ever so much force seldom kill. As vital parts are defended by armor and bone. On the contrary a stab although it may only penetrate 2” is generally fatal. Besides with the attitude of striking, it is impossible to avoid exposing the right arm and side of the body, which is covered during a thrust. With thrust a foe receives the point before sword is seen. It must be observed that when engaging with spears/javelins/grenades, the left foot is advanced increasing throwing force. On contrary at close range with sword, right foot extended so that the body may present less a target to foe and right arm be ready to thrust with max force and reach and to counter enemy that may have broken line gotten behind you. Stabbing; blades edge held horizontal to ground (i.e. parallel) well penetrate between ribs. Stabbing heart via stomach less blood is spilt. Also arm pits, crotch or inter portion of the thigh are locations of vital arteries. Stabbing Pelvis hands width below navel, just above genitals. Axon (base of the back of head) also at end of spinal column just above buttocks. Slicing throat, tip of blade used just to one side of trachea. So the trachea is not cut, which would allow blood to inter airway and cause load gurgling sound.
Characteristics of military operations in Desert warfare
Illumination or smoke rounds can be used to reorient maneuvering forces.
Distances require longer lead times for reconnaissance and surveillance planning. Effective reconnaissance takes time.
Scouts are reconnaissance patrols, not combat patrols, and should attempt to gain information through stealth.
Consideration should be given to conducting reconnaissance during periods of limited visibility.
Very few civilians are encountered in desert operations, and information they give should be treated with caution.
Because there is little vegetation in the desert, strong shadows are readily observed from the air. Disrupt shadows by altering the shape of equipment, using the correct angle to the sun to minimize shadow size i.e. largest vertical surface perpendicular to the sun and to cause shadows to fall on broken ground or vegetation whenever possible.
(Reference, Defense rule # 5 Features of Recognition, shadow)
Open terrain and predominantly clear atmosphere generally offer excellent long-range visibility, but at certain times of the day it may be limited or distorted by the effects of heat. Visibility can be better during the night than day.
The ideal observation should have the sun behind it and be as high as possible to lessen the effects of mirages and heat radiation from the ground.
Stake out your target line/engagement area (trigger point). This will prevent soldiers from engaging targets beyond the maximum effective range of the weapon system.
Observation of fires may be difficult. The lack of visible terrain features distorts the ability to make range estimations.
When preparing defensive positions, use every available means to know how far you can observe in front of your positions.
The enemy can see just as far as you can. Inspect your position from an enemy point of view.
Light and noise at night may be seen or heard from miles away, so strict light and noise discipline are necessary.
Sand and dust reveal movement in the desert. It is best to move at night or during periods of predawn morning dew. This includes resupply as well as tactical movements.
There are fewer terrain features in the desert. This hinders navigation and exposes friendly forces to the enemy. Take advantage of the least considered features, such as wadis, to conceal movement.
The enemy will try to attack with the sun low and behind him.
When natural obstacles are not available, units should use linear obstacles to stop enemy movement. Minefields must be rapidly laid over large areas to be effective. Employ “basic loads” of Class IV (sand bags, pickets, etc.) with all vehicles to expedite digging in. In the desert environment, camouflage and dispersion are a necessity for all forces.
Employ reverse slopes as much as possible and camouflage frontal parapets for individual/crew positions by making use of reverse slopes of natural drifts. This avoids obvious bunker positions being easily seen.
Extended depth and dispersion of vehicles will enhance survival. Dug in vehicles survive longer. Use of dummy positions is more important.
Air instability is most likely to cause quick, vertical, and irregular dissipation of an agent, leaving the target area relatively free of contamination quickly. Chemical weapons used during the heat of day are normally persistent nerve or blister agents.
Combat Service Support;
Medical support in the desert environment is challenged by remote locations.
In a non linear desert defense, enemy and friendly units may be intermingled, especially in poor visibility.
Medical treatment and evacuation will become more critical in the desert. The effectiveness of the combat lifesaver program has been proven.
Medics must constantly re-certify and train those who are designated as combat lifesavers. The standard should be at least one lifesaver per squad.
Rehearse how your unit will identify, treat, and evacuate casualties. This is as important as how you will fight.
When not in use, keep weapons, covered. Even though weapons are coverd, they may still have sand on them. Clean the weapon frequently so it will be ready when needed.
PMCS in the desert is absolutely essential. Left unattended, sand and wind will rapidly destroy the most basic piece of soldier gear.
Sand clogs fuel lines and wears out tires and other rubber and plastic parts faster. It also seeps into engines and cooling systems. This results in overheated engines that can cause sudden and catastrophic failure.
Food service organizations require intense supervision. Current menus must be augmented with fresh fruit, vegetables, and breads to provide soldiers the roughage and nutrients they need.
Command and control;
Desert evenings can be extremely long or short. Leaders should be concerned with EENT, BMNT, and percentage of illumination. These factors will be extremely important when conducting night operations.
Dry desert conditions can, at times, reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, even in aircraft FM communications may be degraded due to dead spots caused by heavy concentrations of minerals close to the surface. Establish firm procedures for constant control, either by radio or through liason.
Ensure that all know the commander’s intent and rehearse battle drill so that actions are understood even in the absence of orders.
I know that you have warned against climbing to the top of the only tal building in a neighborhood or firing down the long axis of a major street.
Teamwork. Most of the advantages of teams apply only to the invaders. Crew served weapons reduce willful misses by reluctant killers. In static positions teams have more endurance.
Divide. Engage the invaders when they are crossing a boundary. Fire when half the invaders are inside a building and half outside it. Fire when half the invaders are in open and half in rough terrain. Fire at dawn or dusk when neither infrared nor visible light is optimal. Fire from one unit's area of operation into another's AO.
Armor
Tanks stopping on trench and spinning to crush troop’s
Threat attacks are based on two principles, speed and mass. Air land battle doctrine four basic tenets of initiative agility, synchronization and depth are constant. A heavy mechanized unit usually plans to win by sustaining a high rate of advance 20 mph i.e. 2-3 minutes per km. Generally 60 miles of range equal 3-5 hour’s time. Egyptian chariot speed 25 mph equal to modern tank. Note house power wt ratio hp divided by vehicle wt. Higher Hp. makes for move lively vehicle more important for acceleration and moving up hill, than for pure speed. Tracked vehicles on flat road surface will slide around corners like auto. Heavier vehicles more stable same as Cadillac vs. compact. Because APCs are lighter they can’t move across open ground as fast with out injuring Marines in side.
Tracked vehicles better two negotiate obstacles in MOUT, also do better off road, wheeled vehicles get stuck.
Over 60 tons tank becomes handicapped, lots of bridges cannot be used. Most tanks barely float if equipped to due so and cannot manage rough water.
MT drivers and crew passengers of open vehicles are very venerable to cold injuries. MOUT Dusts wares out pistons. Dust, rough handling character, places great strain on drives, communication equipment and night vision equipment. Vehicles use less fuel in MOUT than open. In open terrain vehicles that run out of fuel can be recovered later. Noise reduction with ear plugs etc. more important with tracked vehicles, over time adds to fatigue.
USSR wider tracked vehicle did better in mud. Vehicle used more fuel. Over all operationally 20% on road,40% off road, 40% stationary, engine running this well very with season more time off road summer when ground is dry and firm less when hot ( air con- no) cold snow or muddy more time for heater benefit.
Tank drivers main job keep tank covered/concealed, don’t move strait out of hull down position.
Narrow street were only one tank can proceed should be avoided.
Bridges and other prominent features may have indirect fire sighted on them.
The factors of cover, concealment, fields of fire, etc. considered in selecting other defensive positions are also applicable when selecting positions for combat vehicles. Utilizing any physical barrier available, such as low walls or piled-up rubble, brush or locating it within a building to gain additional cover and concealment. Tank and APC positions can be classified in general terms as hull-down or hide positions. Hull-down positions are dug in, to protect the vehicle by reducing its silhouette. Hide positions, as the name implies, deny the enemy direct observation of a tank or APC.
Maneuver unit at disadvantage do to lack of concealment. Tanks need only move 50-100’ to find ground cover, undulations. Tanks average 300 feet apart.
(Reference, COE rule # 7 and Defense rule # 6)
Ideally tank support infantry the exception is when combat is on flat open ground. In open terrain you are more likely to be attacked by horses/vehicles/helicopters than by infantry.
Featureless terrain troops in front of tanks to provide better information to tanks.
If cavalry is not strong enough to compete with foes inter mix it with infantry. Cavalry and infantry the later is more important to analyze.
For a last ditch direct assault dismount infantry first, to limit casualties. Dismounted infantry checking routes should clear high ground first. Make sure your forward infantry can be covered by tank crew behind you.
If infantry dose not fallow armored units within reasonable time, a section should be sent back to investigate. Tanks that get separated from infantry can not fire at bypassed enemy. In turning to withdrawal all tanks should turn about as right face to limit confusion as to the danger zones for infantry.
"We have saved our wire crews much work by carrying on each vehicle two poles with hooks on the ends so that we can quickly lift field-wire lines and run under them." After withdrawal paths closed with wire to prevent easy use for travel. No fighting positions are placed in tanks path that were made during assault.
Troops operating with tanks beware of debris from APDS rounds. 60 degrees ark during firing danger zone for APDS. Gun muzzle blast in MOUT can last 1-2 minutes. Troops can use for smoke screen. Smoke screen canisters danger when fired and can cause fires. Gunner “if driver says he has target. I knew to swing to the right”. Commander has over ride to turret if gunner fails to point gun. Hatches closed when firing gun or tow from concealed room or area. Tanks directing hot exhaust into manholes, fighting holes etc. with deflectors.
Killing tanks; the presents of tanks should not be exaggerated, the primary aim in training is to over come any inherent feelings of inferiority, when faced with enemy armor. No attempt should be made to turn training into a drill. This is pointless for there is neither a standard group of fighters nor a single tactic for fighting tanks at close range. Skill and imagination are the only answers.
The Chechen hunter–killer teams, like wolf packs searching out an isolated member of a family of deer, frequently attacked a single armored vehicle simultaneously from several different directions.
Chechen forces employing three- or four-man fire teams composed of a sniper a machine-gunner and a RPG gunner. IMO the teams system should have worked like this, first the sniper would force to crew to button up, then the machine gunner with armor piecing rounds would breach the reactive armor then would come a salvo of RPGs concentrated on the exposed area.
WWII tank vs. tank was rare more common to have tank vs. infantry. Try to separate them allow tanks to sweep over positions, separate fallow on infantry. Which can hold ground. Destroy armor at (T) intersections. Some armor used plows to forge paths. Plow vehicles move slowly and are prime targets, vehicles had to fallow predictable path.
Tanks weak point is with its tracks. Target tanks as they are exposing underside at crest.
Force crew to bottom up. Difficult for crew to observe or keep track of the direction of vehicle (orientation). Vehicle blind spaces most cars 15-20’ RV./van 20-30 ‘trucks 30-40’ short driver 50’.
Unlike the mortar or machine gun which usually target an area, the AT gun had to hit a very specific object, namely an armored vehicle. The AT gun was a purely line of sight weapon. Its round flew on a flat trajectory so the gunner had to have a uninterrupted view of the target.
A Rifle Company in the vanguard of a cautious advance would normally expect a number of guns to support it. The only way to ensure there was always one gun capable of delivering immediate support was to advance them by bounds, one gun covering while another moved to a new position.
To be at their most effective, the first few rounds of AT fire had to come as a complete surprise to the enemy. Concealment and camouflage were vital tasks for the gun crews, perfectly attainable when operating from a well prepared defensive position, less so when deployed to protect infantryman who had just seized their objective.
In open country, the guns were particularly susceptible to fire from the very tanks they sought to destroy, which could pitch HE shells at them from longer range than the crews could respond to with their amour piercing ammunition. In close country, the threat came as much from enemy infantry accompanying the tanks to deal with just such an obstacle. The only defense was to site the guns within the localities defended by friendly riflemen who could repulse the infantry with small arms fire while the gunners engaged the tanks. The guns could also fire high explosive ammunition against infantry targets. Chief among these was the reduction of strong points or fortified buildings were amour piercing rounds proving effective even at their longer ranges.
Tanks vs. ATGMs; never point RPG or other back blast weapons upward or fire from prone (lose limbs). Anti tank weapons placed on elevated position to fire down at tank, 20 degrees angle increases hit 67% at 600 feet. 45 degree doubled odds compared to a surface level shoot. Four inches of vertical clearance over obstacles for muzzle of crew served weapons. Power lines, antennas and poles interfere with lead shots or shots from roofs. If electricity still on may shock operator or burn up computer and sensors. Some ATGMs may have trouble firing over water.
Direct fire weapons may need flank observer due to visibility obscured by dust round falling short, best to over shoot so observer dose not loose site of target. Concentrate indirect fire on lead element. If you try to pick them off one at a time you will be over run before you know it, mass combat power at right place and time. With average country side you well spot tank 1760 feet of range 40% of the time. 1/3 to ½ of a mile range 25% of the time. ¾ to 1 mile 20%. Over one mile 10%. Even in open areas the longest range figure is the rule. Tanks travel in undulations in terrain. Watch for dust esp. after long dry spells.
AT crews should not respond to enemy small arms fire. "At night, we placed a machine gun on both sides of a tank destroyer. When hostile tanks were heard approaching, the machine 'guns fired tracers until ricochets indicated that a tank was being hit. Both guns would then fire at the tank and the ATGM can fire at the point of the "V" formed by the converging tracers."
A number of vulnerable points were identified on machines, notably the vision ports, engine deck plate and the tracks.
The Germans also deployed blocks of explosive which could be hung over the barrel of the main gun, mangling it on detonation.
Smoke grenades or generators (pots filled with chemical compounds) or any available materials including vegetation, were all used.
The hope was the smokescreen would be sufficient to degrade cooperation and mutual support between the tanks, forcing each to fight on its own and be defeated in detail. It should be noted, there was nothing to prevent one tank from machine-gunning the hull of another to clear it of enemy infantry, knowing the crew would be immune.
Germans developed Zimmerit coating. This was applied to Panzers to prevent magnetic charges being fixed to the hull, which proved quite effective.
Molotov cocktail or fire bottle in Red Army parlance.
A group of mines could be laced together and pulled into the path of an oncoming tank, (rather like the 'stinger' beloved of police forces for stopping stolen cars).
SP 7/2000; Russia has developed a motorcycle sidecar that is equipped with an anti-tank guided missile launcher. The sidecar is designed to be equip cross country motorcycles used by reconnaissance units and Special Forces
SP member not a lot of even modern MBTs are built to withstand that many 30mm armor pircing shells across their upperworks. Things like hatches, optics and sights, those roof blow-out panels over bustle-mounted ammo magazines, and especially the radiator grills over the top of the engine decking, those are pitifully weak compared to actual turret faces and side armor.
Using hot tar to coat tanks vision posts etc.
(Reference, Step # 3, General phase threeThe assault, phase four Consolidation/Explotation)
Fighting spirit
Ancient Zulu motto if we go forward we die, if we go backwards we die, best we go forward.
Max Hastings the principal problem in any attack is to maintain momentum. Every instinct especially among the inexperienced is to take cover under fire. Instinct is reinforced when the bodies of others who have failed to do so, lie all around you. Inexperienced troops find it notoriously difficult to assess the extent of the resistance and risk. Marshall it is beyond question that the most serious and repeated break downs on the battle field are caused by the failure to control fear, causing a shrinkage of fire. In the grater number of instances this shrinkage is the result of troops failing to carry out task which are well with in there power.
William Hauser the will to fight four elements: Submission the process through which the solider is made to do over and over again, the things he dose not wont to do, until he understands that the fundamental rule of his existence is to obey. (Epiphany Pavlov’s dogs conditioning though rules repeatedly, dog things that have no meaning). If this conditioning process has been effective the soldier well continue to submit to the orders of legitimate authority even though the orders are contrary to his fundamental instinct of self preservation. For even the gods have feet of clay. Para’s equipped to last 48 hours. In that time a modern war well be won or lost after two days you are written off. We listened to the talk quietly and with swelling pride. We had never reckoned on being cannon fodder. But the way he told it, it sounded like the highest honor. We had been chosen to die. (Dulce et decorum est pro partria mori.)
(Reference, Appendix, Training)
Fear although it makes some flee the battle field that same fear is a major factor in sustaining the will to fight. If the soldier knows and trust his comrades, he well probably perceive more safety in continuing to fight along side of them, than in rearward flight away form them and the enemy they face.
Courage a soldier always has a choice about taking a risk. He can lie there behind a log and theirs nothing you can do about it. No one can make him get up. The risk he must take is a total loss risk, and deciding to take that risk is courage, it is the ultimate definition of a warrior. Courage is contagious, he did it, and I can do it too. Its not that they won’t to do it, but they well do it. Gurkha weapons instructor; He taught us to cock the mechanism, to peel the working parts back and feel them wheeling in perfect harmony-the superb precision of the killing machine. Never go for the limbs or head. Always go for the trunk, the big target. Shoot to kill. The rifle became an extension of our arms, we felt naked without it. Familiarity was what our training was about. Handling your weapon had to become so instinctive that you could kill automatically with out any intervening moment of thought. That’s the measure of a real warrior, accuracy under fire. One day we would sense a kind of fusion between ourselves and the weapon, and on that day we would become real soldiers. On the surface it seemed like oriental mysticism but later I sensed the truth beneath his words. The army had learned over centuries how to harness the savage horse of aggression in every man. Show aggression, courage, endurance, strength and lack compassion, pity and remorse. Anyone could shoot at a target on the range on a sunny day, but making your fire deadly, when you were in someone else’s sights was much harder. In most ordinary units, especially conscript units, half of the soldiers froze during a contact and were unable to fire. There negative instincts had taken over. You had to conquer that fear, to lay down a solid wall of fire, to sting like a cornered bee, to take out the enemy, an aggressive, determined response was the only way to win the firefight.
Pride the knowledge on the part of a man with a specific function that others depend on and value this particular contribution to their safety and to the unit’s mission. John Boyd in his theory of conflict says that successful forces are held together by a since of mutual trust and sowing distrust is one of the fastest ways to destroy an army. A common saying is… no solider takes a hill for his nation, he takes it for this bodies.
Characteristics of Combat time dilation, a sense of time slowing down or speeding up. Vividness, a heighten awareness of detail. Random thoughts – the mind fixating on unimportant sequences, memory loss.
Epilogue
I wish to make sure no one thinks of me as a terrorist. If anyone, was to line up everyone, who has every known me, and asked them the question-“has (My name) ever talked to you about military matters”? All would laugh and reply all the time! My history is the proof of my stability. I don’t have any comrades, underworld contacts, or dilutions of becoming a rebel with a cause. I absolutely believe that the next civil war, which may have already started. Well be an elite/corporate one. The days of grass roots revolutions are over. The masses are nothing more than fuel now. Kind of like in the movie Matrix, HA! I now live with a WW two veteran. He is 84 years old. And a wonderful human being. We love and need each other! He is my mission in life. Seeing to it that he lives as long and as best a life as possible, is what I intend to accomplish. He saved me from a life on the streets. I invite anyone who wishes to know more, to ask me. What fallows is a poem that can also serve as an insight to my mind set. People are entitled to their opinions. But I have yet to meet anyone with facts to prove me wrong about anything much at all.
WAR
War, you just can’t call it war anymore
nor can you say it well last x amount of days
Advanced technology has brought about scientific criminology
Logically speaking, we can only surrender, to that which well ultimately render.
NJD 1995
THE END
APPENDIX STEP # 2 COMMANDERS INTENT
Note the fallowing has been moved to basic under Commander’s intent.
MCA Gazette June 2009; Code of a Naval Officer written by John Paul Jones in the late 1700s. However hard it may be for Marines to turn to a naval officer for leadership advice it would be worse to ignore the timeless advice of this great American leader and hero. Midshipmen at the Naval Academy revere him and consider John Paul Jones both a Revolutionary War hero and father of the U.S. Navy. A tenacious and tireless leader, his maxims on leadership are just as relevant to Marine leaders today as they were to sailors during the days of sail-powered wooden ships. An expository study of John Paul Jones’ Code of a Naval Officer can assist greatly in the development of young leaders, serve as a sounding board for experienced leaders, and may just reveal the true essence of leadership for all leaders—from yesterday, today, and to tomorrow.
It is, by no means, enough that an officer of the Navy should be a capable mariner. He must be that, of course, but also a great deal more. He should be, as well, a gentleman of liberal education, refined manner, punctilious courtesy, and the nicest sense of personal honor. . . . He should be the soul of tact, patience, justice, firmness, and charity. The Marine Corps invests significant time training young leaders in the tactics, techniques, and procedures related to their particular specialty. This preparation is critical because leaders must have a full and complete understanding of their duties. (NCO), must act like a leader in all aspects of life. Honor. Courtesy. Tact. Patience. Firmness. These are to be the hallmarks of a leader’s disposition. How many times has the public, much less the Marine Corps, witnessed leaders who display the opposite of these qualities? How often do leaders, unseen by the public eye, fail to display these qualities? The newspapers and 24-hour news channels are replete with stories of NCOs and officers involved in unethical and inappropriate behavior. This conduct is unsatisfactory and has led to the near complete erosion of the “special trust and confidence” once afforded to young leaders.
He should not only be able to express himself clearly and with force in his own language both with tongue and pen, but he should be versed in French and Spanish. It seems strange that the ability to communicate should be so difficult in this age of information. An unfortunate byproduct of e-mail, text chat, and the Internet is the inability of many leaders to effectively communicate with their peers and Marines in their charge. The ability to speak in front of an audience with confidence and to write clear and logical thoughts is essential for a leader.
Today’s leaders require a liberal knowledge of the cultures and nuances of the countries and regions vital to America’s national security. This knowledge can include proficiency in a foreign language, but is not limited to becoming bilingual. Cultural understanding includes language, economics, societal customs, religion, geography and, most of all, history. Only by understanding the many aspects of foreign societies can leaders expect to operate successfully in the current and future battlefields of the long war where the populace is seen more and more as the center of gravity.
No meritorious act of a subordinate should escape his attention or be left to pass without its reward, if even the reward be only one word of approval. In this modern world of entitlements and handouts, military personnel in all of the Services are beginning to feel that they are owed, or “rate,” an end of tour award for successfully completing a tour, regardless of their actual accomplishments or impact on mission success. This current trend causes the relative value of personal awards to plummet lower and lower until one’s medals have no real meaning at all.
“Praise publicly” “Discipline in private” as an incentive to others. Marines desire to be relevant, and public recognition in the presence of their peers meets that need. A leader who spends enough time in the presence of his Marines will be able to identify meritorious acts and duly recognize them swiftly and in proportion to the act performed—not inflated or deflated. According to this guidance no one rates anything, and all recognition is to be earned and rewarded commensurately.
Learn Discernment; Conversely, he should not be blind to a single fault in any subordinate, though at the same time he should be quick and failing to distinguish error from malice, thoughtlessness from incompetence, and well-meant shortcoming from heedless or stupid blunder. Leaders make decisions every day. Some of these decisions are benign while many can have great ramifications on their subordinates’ lives. The key to making wise decisions is discernment. An experienced leader can discern honest mistakes from malice or incompetence. This leader allows subordinates to learn (and make mistakes) in an environment that is conducive to learning and growing while separating and disciplining the malcontents and incompetent members of the command. A good leader learns the art of discernment through study, by learning from past decisions, and by seeking advice from all levels of leadership. No doubt this is an area where an experienced leader has the advantage, but a junior leader should not be left alone to discern by mere trial and error. This is where the true power of mentorship is witnessed as junior leaders learn from the past mistakes and successes of their seniors. There will always be difficult situations. Through mentorship young leaders can learn how to handle the hard cases of discipline and motivation with discernment and discretion following Jones’ more well-known maxim to “discipline in private.” Implicit in Jones’ instruction is for leaders (at all levels) to be visible. It is not enough to command from the corner.
Impartial Justice; As he should be universal and impartial in his rewards and approval of merit, so should he be judicial and unbending in his punishment or reproof of misconduct. All leaders have favorites. It’s a fact. One of the most difficult actions a leader can take is imposing discipline or punishment on a favorite subordinate. Leaders desire to promote and award while accepting the responsibility to punish. Conflict is hard, and many leaders abdicate this role to their subordinate leaders or abandon it all together to the detriment of good order and discipline. This is a travesty. The just and impartial imposition of rewards and punishment within a command is vital if a leader is to serve as the moral arbitrator and judge in the command. Only through consistently treating all subordinates in an equal manner will leaders be able to lead without the stain of favoritism or discrimination. Justice, above all else, should be the goal of any leader in the decision to reward or punish. The charges presented in Jones’ code should sound familiar to Marines. Unfortunately, familiarity does not always equal action, and there are many Marine Corps leaders today who do not live up to these standards. Let this article serve as a wake-up call for action! America’s Marines deserve this standard of leadership. Like the maxims of the classical strategists, the qualities of good leadership are timeless and unchanging. Not only should the Marine Corps indoctrinate young leaders in the tactics of great warriors, it should imbue them with their wisdom too. The Code of a Naval Officer serves as a brief testament to the enduring qualities of those who have gone before us and as an instruction pamphlet for today’s leaders. If continually referenced and followed, this code can provide the necessary “rudder guidance” to ensure that Marine leaders continue to set the example for solid leadership and high performance for many years to come.
APPENDIX MM&W
MOUNTAIN ROUTE PLANNING
Map Reconnaissance. Check the date of the map. Avoid the use of manmade features as checkpoints due to their unreliability and lack of permanence. Topographic maps provide the primary source of information concerning the area of operations. A 1:25,000 map depicts greater detail than a 1:50,000 map and should be used whenever possible. Because examination of the micro-terrain is so important for mountain operations, even larger scale maps are desirable. Civilian 1:12,000 maps can be used if available. Aerial, oblique angle, photographs give details not always shown on maps (crags and overhangs) note crag is defined as a steep cliff or rock point. Along with sketch maps, verbal descriptions, documented information gathered from units previously in the area, or published sources such as alpine journals or climbing guides may help. Forest service and logging and mining company maps provide additional information, often showing the most recent changes to logging trails and mining access roads.
When conducting a map reconnaissance, pay close attention to the marginal information. Mountain-specific terrain features may be directly addressed in the legend. In addition, such facilities as ski lifts, cable and tramways are often found. Along with the standard topographic map color scheme, there are some commonly seen applications for mountainous terrain. White with blue contours indicates glaciers or permanent snowfields. The outline of the snow or ice is shown by dashed blue lines while their contour lines are solid blue. High ice cliffs which are equal to or exceed the contour interval will be shown. Low ice cliffs and ice caves may be indicated if they provide local landmarks. Brown contour lines on white mean dry areas without significant forest cover. Areas above tree line, clear cuts, rock or avalanche slide paths and meadows are all possible. Study the surrounding terrain and the legend for other clues. An important point to remember is that thick brush in small gullies and streambeds may not be depicted by green, but should still be expected.
Obstacles, such as rivers and gorges, will require technical equipment to cross if bridges are not present. Fords and river crossing sites should be identified. Due to the potential for hazardous weather conditions, potential bivouac sites are noted on the map. Ruins, barns, sheds and terrain-protected hollows are all possible bivouac sites. Danger areas in the mountains; isolated farms and hamlets, bridges, roads, trails, and large open areas above tree line, are factored in, and plans made to avoid them. Use of terrain-masking becomes essential because of the extended visibility offered by enemy observation points on the dominant high ground.
In the Northern Hemisphere. Southern slopes are sunnier and drier than northern slopes, with sparser or different types of vegetation. Northern slopes can be snowier and, because of more intense glaciations in past ages, are often steeper. Opposite rules apply in the Southern Hemisphere.
During calm weather, your rate of movement will be significantly faster than during periods of inclement weather. If the weather turns bad, forested areas provide welcome relief from wind and blowing snow. Heavy spruce/fir tangles slow progress to a crawl. Individual loads also affect march rates. Combined soldier loads that exceed 50 pounds per man can be expected to slow movement significantly in mountainous terrain. Given the increased weight of extra ammunition for crew-served weapons, basic mountaineering gear, and clothing for mountain travel, it becomes obvious that soldiers will be carrying weights well in excess of that 50-pound limit.
Heavily glaciated granite mountains pose different problems than does river-carved terrain. The U-shaped valley bulldozed out by a glacier forces maneuver elements down to the valley floor or up to the ridge tops, while the water-cut V-shape of river valleys allows movement throughout the compartment.
Routes through granite rock (long cracks, good friction; use of pitons, chocks and camming units) will call for different equipment and technique than that used for steep limestone (pockets, smooth rock; bolts, camming units).
Operations above tree line in temperate climates or in the brushy zone of arid mountains means that material for suspension traverse A-frames must be packed. The thick brush and krummholtz mats of subalpine zones and temperate forested mountains can create obstacles that must be bypassed.
Time-Distance Formulas.
Computing march rates in the mountains is difficult, especially in snow. The following rates are listed as a guide. Rates are given for movement over flat or gently rolling terrain for individuals carrying a rifle and loaded rucksack.
On foot (no snow cover), 2 to 3 kph (cross-country), 3 to 4 kph (trail walking)
On foot (less than 1 foot of snow), 1.6 to 3.2 kph(cross-country), 2 to 3.2 kph(trail walking)
On foot (more than 1 foot of snow), .4 to 1.2 kph(cross-country), 2 to 3.2 kph(trail walking)
Snowshoeing, 1.6 to 3.2 kph(cross-country), 3.2 to 4 kph(trail walking). Skiing, 1. to 5.6 kph(cross-country), 4.8 to 5.6 kph(trail walking). Skijoring, N/A(cross-country), 3 to 24 kph(trail walking).
March distances in mountainous terrain are often measured in time rather than distance units. In order to do this, first measure the map distance. This distance plus 1/3 is a good estimate of actual ground distance. Add one hour for each 1,000 feet of ascent or 2,000 feet of descent to the time estimate.
Accidentally /purposely discharged weapon by IA members to worn of joint patrol presence.
Cave, Caverns and Tunnel Characteristics
Haloclines of different types of water can look like air pockets.
Geologists define “cave” as a naturally occurring room or passage in bedrock, large enough to be entered by a human being, and “cavern” as two or more such interconnected underground rooms or passages.
Four basic types of caves, coral, sea, lava-tube , and solution caves.
Coral, famous for its ability to secrete calcium carbonate and build large limestone reefs. Mostly occur in tropical oceans and support diverse marine organisms. Created when the tops of neighboring coral heads grow together to create tunnels within the reef. Passages tend to be small, short, and irregular. Projecting coral heads may snag a diver and backing out of a small cave is often very difficult. Floor commonly composed of white, carbonate sand. Water clarity, may be quite good. Holes may exist in the ceiling and a diver may be able to see one or more alternate exits. Caves appear less foreboding. Contain much less marine life than the sunlit portion of the reefs, solitary corals, sponges, and other organisms may be found on the ceiling, walls and floor. Schools of small fish and lobsters occasional large fish, such as grouper, nurse sharks, or moray eels, which can be startling when they are encountered unexpectedly in close quarters.
Terms: Speleothems, or types of cave formations. Stalactites and stalagmites. Spelunkers, sump is a completely submerged passageway within an air filled cave that blocked further exploration until until the advent of scuba gear.
Karst hydrology, speleologists those who engage in the scientific study and exploration of caves, their environment, and biology. Lithify the sediment, turning it to rock.
Sea caves formed by battering-ram effect of waves against cliffs. Many have spectacularly large entrances passage development in sea caves is usually not extensive. Rarely exceed several hundred feet in length force of the waves is dissipated rapidly against the walls of the cave. Form along the coasts of lakes, most common along the pacific and northeast Atlantic coasts, lake Huron, Caribbean islands, seacoasts in Mexico. Form in coastal surf zone, or littoral zone. Littoral caves may be a more accurate name for sea caves. Most not completely filled with water. Consequently they have a lower risk form overhead obstructions than other kinds of caves. Nevertheless, submerged ledges and spaces beneath boulders may pose objective hazards, especially in heavy surf keeps particles in suspension. Contain abundant sea life, anemones, shellfish, sea urchins, and sea mammals. Strong, unpredictable wave wash and currents usually occur. Drag even the strongest of divers along the floor and across sharp seashells and sea urchins, bash divers against walls. It is generally wise to dive in when the tide is slack and wave height is low.
Lava-tube caves. When lava emerges from volcanic vents and flows downhill loss of heat to the atmosphere causes the outer layer of lava to solidify first. Sometimes the still molten core continues to flow, draining the bridged-over area and leaving behind a hollow tube, called a lava tube cave. Roof is thin, fairly common, number of collapses may occur multiple entrances. Always form on dry land. Diveable lava-tube caves occur mostly alone volcanic coastlines where the caves been submerged by rising sea level over approximately the last 20,000 years. In the US pacific northwest and Hawailan islands. Some parts of Mexico, Africa, and canary islands. Often simple conduits. Ape cave in the state of Washington, has over 12,000 feet of passage with widths up to 10 feet and heights of up to 40 feet. Kazumura cave in Hawaii has over 7-1/2 miles of surveyed passageways both are dry caves. Most formed in dark-gray to black rock called basalt. The dark colored rock absorbs tremendous amounts of light. Contain extensive amounts of clay and silt that can reduce visibility to zero if stirred up.
Solution caves. By far the most numerous and extensive type of caves found. Flint ridge mammoth cave system of Kentucky over 400 miles in length constantly expanding contain the largest underground chamber. The big room of Carlsbad caverns in New Mexico, for example, is over 300 feet high, 600 feet wide and 4000 feet long. Name from the fact that they are formed by the dissolution of certain kinds of sedimentary rock, limestone and dolomite, by weakly acidic, flowing groundwater. Limestone and dolomite occur over approximately 15 % of the world’s land surface. In north America found wherever carbonate rocks crop out, such as in belts along the folded (western) part of the Appalachians, throughout much of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia where the limestone is nearly horizontal: in the Ozarks of Missouri, northern Arkansas, and eastern Oklahoma: in the Edwards plateau region of central Texas: in and along the flanks of numerous mountain rages in the Rocky Mountains: in northern and central Florida: in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and throughout the entire Caribbean archipelago. The solution Cave most frequently dived are located in Florida, the Bahamas, Texas, Missouri and Mexico. Soluble rock two kinds of soluble rocks that are important for cave diving are limestone and dolomite. They are called carbonate rocks because of their chemical composition, and dissolve more readily than most other rock types. Limestone is a rock made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dolomite (also known as dolostone) is a rock made of calcium-magnesium carbonate (CaMg (CO3)2.
Limey sediment is produced most abundantly in shallow tropical oceans where the water is relatively clear and free from siliceous sediment. Nearly all the lime is derived from the calcareous skeletons form animals and certain types of algae, a small amount of the calcium carbonate is deposited directly from the seawater. The texture of the limestone may range from large, solid colonies of intergrown coral, to seashells to sand sized, broken bits of shells, to microscopic crystals. Limestone is a tremendously variable type of rock and this description barely begins to explore the possibilities.
Hydrogeology. Caves can form in soluble rock wherever a source of acid is present and groundwater flow is sufficient to carry away the products of dissolution. Scientists have identified a number of sources of acid, but the most important one carbon dioxide, occurs as a gas in the atmosphere and more especially, in the soil. Carbon dioxide in moist, organic-rich soil by the respiration of micro-organisms and the processes of decay. Rainwater filtering down through the organic matter in soil absorbs carbon dioxide to from carbonic acid (H2C03). Near the surface, tiny air pockets and infiltrating water. This zone of aerated material is known as the vadose zone. Eventually the downward percolating water reaches a depth where the pores and joints are completely filled with water. The water saturated portion of the ground is called the phreatic zone. The top of the phreatic zone is called the water table. Horizontal and vertical cave passages can form both above and below the water table. The relative importance of cave development above or below the water table has been debated at great length. A consensus has developed that most cave development initially takes place a short distance below the water table in the shallow part of the phreatic zone. Acidic water flowing through joints in the vadose zone tends to drop vertically to the water table. At the water table, the downward flow is impeded because the pores and joints are filled with water. Consequently once the water reaches the phreatic zone it tends to move laterally from areas where the water table is high, to the lowest available outlet. The phreatic zone may fluctuate with changes of season and during wet and dry periods. Local geologic, geographic and environmental conditions can greatly influence the type of cave that can develop and control the hydrologic function of the cave. A wide variety of forms and functions are possible.
Karst terrain. Limestone region marked by sinks and interspersed with abrupt ridges, irregular protuberant rocks, caverns and underground streams. The term is derived from and area in northwestern Yugoslavia, called the Carso Plateau where the karst features where first describe.
Water sources. Although there are a few documented instances of underground rivers running for tens of miles, most major springs can be accounted for on the basis of rainfall within a relatively restricted surface region. Rainbow springs one of Florida’s first-magnitude springs, is only in the neighborhood of 25 x 35 square miles. However, in some cases flows may originate from sources under tremendous pressure thousands of feet belowground. The water from warm mineral springs for example is thought to come from the 3000 foot boulder zone. The largest karst spring in the US is probably Silver Springs, near Ocala in central Florida. Discharges 960 cubic feet per second on average. Certain other, closely related groups of springs have average discharges that total even more. Any spring that has an average discharge of more than 100 cubic feet per second (64.4 million gallons per day or about the amount of freshwater required each day for a city of 100,000 is classified as a first magnitude spring. Based on available publications there are 27 first magnitude springs in Florida, 15, in Oregon, 14, in Idaho, 8 in Missouri, and 4 in California.
The cave springs that are of interest to divers are , of course, the ones that are completely filled with water. Cave springs commonly appear as pools from which a stream, or run, flows. Frequently, a smooth area, or slick, occurs on the surface f the spring pool above the mouth of the cave. The water discharged from a cave spring flows down the run to a larger surface stream, lake, or the ocean. Spring runs are usually less than a few hundred yards long, but in some cases, like Ichetucknee springs in Florida, they are several miles long. Siphons the point at which part or all of the water of a sinking surface stream sinks into the ground or enters a cave is called a swallow hoe, or ponor, or particularly by divers a siphon. Instead of having a slick on the surface like a spring pool, a siphon pool will commonly has floating debris and water plants revolving slowly above the cave opening in a spiral pattern called a gyre. This whirlpool-like feature is a telltale indication that water is flowing into the ground. Siphons may drain entire rivers, as is the case for the Chipola and Santa Fe rivers in Florida, which sink underground only to reappear miles away. Driving in sipons is much more dangerous than diving in a spring, because of the inflowing current which most be over come to exit, and the inflowing river water may have poor or no visibility.
Sinkholes. Karst terrain is characterized by numerous depressions in the ground surface, known as dolines or sinkholes. these may be shaped like bowls, downward-pointing cones or cylinders. May range from less than one foot to several hundred feet deep. Widths vary from less than one foot to several thousand feet. Water flows toward the bottom of the sinkhole and generally soaks into the ground. Solutionally enlarged openings in the bedrock, often filled with soil or broken rock, usually connect the sinkhole to an interconnected cavern. Sinkholes are formed by three principle mechanisms. First, solution may produce a depression on the top of bedrock, thus forming a solution sinkhole. Second a cave roof may collapse causing the overlying ground to settle and forming a bedrock cavern- collapse sinkhole. Third soil or unconsolidated material may wash downward into pre existing voids in the bedrock, thus causing the surface to subside, and forming a subsidence sinkhole. Subsidence of the cover material may be very rapid or very slow, so subsidence sinkholes can be subdivided into cover collapse (rapid) and cover-subsidence is caused by erosion that starts at the base of the soil or unconsolidated material, and works its way up to affect the surface. Subsidence sinkholes are by far the most common type of sinkhole in areas where appreciable soil cover exists, as in much of Florida. Bedrock cavern collapse sinkholes are perhaps the easiest to visualize, and they do occur, but generally they are much less common. The floor of a sinkhole may be bare rock or be covered with soil, or contain a cave entrance. The floor may be dry or flooded. A sinkhole with water in the bottom is called a karst lake or karst pond, or less properly, a sinkhole lake. Karst ponds may range in width from a few feet to several hundred feet. Although they may be small. They may be hundreds of feet deep. Some karst ponds have a cave entrance in the floor of the pond. In Florida, the entrance commonly leads down into a vertical shaft. At depth the walls may widen and thus create large overhanging ledges. In cross section, the sloping floor of the pond and the increasing width of the cave frequently has an hourglass configuration. If soil has washed down from the surface or if much rock has fallen from the ceiling, a cone of debris may be present on the floor of the cave. Horizontal caves may be present anywhere along the walls of the vertical shaft. If little collapse or sedimentation has occurred then one might find two cave passages at the bottom of the shaft, one leading upstream and the other leading downstream. Divers call the upstream passage the spring cave and the downstream the siphon cave. The terms simply denote the relative direction of current flow.
Cenotes are vertically walled or slightly over-hanging shafts in bare or thinly mantled limestone terrain, and were first described in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. Width is approximately equal to the depth, the bottom of the shaft contains water. In plan view they are approximately circular. They are generally considered cave collapse sinkholes. Dismal Sink, south of Tallahassee, Florida is a good example of a cenote.
Karst Windows, are cavern collapses that reveal a segment of a stream that other wise flows through an underground course. The upstream and downstream sections of the cave are separated by a short segment of stream channel that is exposed to the surface. Ex is River sink, south of Tallahassee, Florida. Flow emerges from the north side of a pool that is 65 feet wide and 280 feet long, and passes into an underground channel at the south end of the pool. Its not a spring however, even though it is listed as a first-magnitude. The flow probably emerges further south at Wakulla spring which forms the headwaters of the Wakulla River.
Sumps, a water filled section of cave passage within a cave that has other passages that are at least partially air filled. Occur where the passage descends to a lower elevation below the water table, or the roof becomes low enough that the cave stream can fill the passage. In some cases a sump may lead to entirely air-filled passages. Sump diving is the most advanced form of cave exploration since it requires both caving and cave-diving skills. Difficulties may include transporting equipment long distances through rugged passages, fouling of gear by mud and sand, cold water, no visibility in the water, numerous tight restrictions.
Underground lakes, very large sumps are sometimes referred to as lakes, most common in mountainous regions, although several are documented in Florida, The lost sea, in Tennessee, is the largest in North America, with a surface area of 4.9 acres. Dragon’s Breath cave I Namibia, is the worlds largest 5.2 acres. With vissiblity exceeding 300 foot.
Hazards: the cavern ceiling limits direct ascent to the surface. Currents, the strength can very depending on recent weather. If rain fall is light and steady, much of this water is absorb into the ground. Minimizing surface runoff to local rivers, and currents in the caves that drain the area will be stronger than normal. With downpours, rivers rise rapidly, current within the cave current will be low and may even reverse. Thus a spring may temporarily become a siphon. In sea caves, lava tubes, cenotes current may change with tides.
Visibility, sometimes exceeding several hundred feet. May vary considerably in different caves and within the same cave at different times of the year. It depends on the amount of suspended particulates and the dissolved chemicals in the water. Particulates classified by their chemical composition (organic vs. inorganic) and by their size (sand being 2.0-0.64 mm in diameter, silt being 0.064-0.002 mm, and clay less than 0.002mm). Divers refer to all fine grain particles as silt and the act of stirring them up as silting. Total loss of visibility AKA silt out. Terms used to classify the time particles effect visibility if disturbed are sand, mung, mud, and clay.
Sand, is a relatively heavy, coarse material, composed of ground-up rock or mineral, usually with a light –colored, clean appearance. It tends to settle out of the water very quickly, within minutes. Mung is organic growth that occurs in marine caves, varies in size, but is very light remains suspended for considerable time. In low flow marine caves it tends to cover everything. Mud maybe neither organic or inorganic, dose not have the lose dry appearance of sand but looks more like mud on the surface. More often than not it is dark in color, can take several hours to settle. Clay is the worst taking days or weeks to settle. A diver may not be able to see a bright light inches away form his face. A small amount of clay that is clinging to a pressure gauge that has been dragged carelessly along the bottom may create a cloud of silt that follows the diver through the cavern. Silt maybe loosely or tightly compacted. Something dropped on a very compacted mud floor may stir up a little silt and remain on surface, however on a loosely pack clay surface it might disappear. Compactness may very significantly within a cave. The amount of silt, type of silt, and ease with which it can be disturbed, varies depending on the velocity of the current and the type of sediment available in the area around the cave. Passages with strong currents may contain only sand, gravel, or have bare rock walls. On the other hand, because small particles accumulate where the current is low, soft and easily disturbed silt is most likely to occur in passages that have little or no current. Because of gravity, sediment is usually thickest on the floor of the passage, and or walls and ceiling, and partially eroded mud banks may form the wall in places. Because of this even the most cautious diver may cause some silting, if only because his exhaust bubbles disturb the ceiling silt.
Chemicals:
Tannic acid, which is produced by decaying vegetation in swampy areas, imparts a drk brown tea color to water. Obviously, caves that siphon river water tainted with this brown pigment have very poor visibility. Another chemical, hydrogen sulfide, is frequently found at the interface between the freshwater and saltwater layers that occur in some sinkholes, especially those lying along coastal regions. Although no toxic reactions due to hydrogen sulfide have yet been reported in divers, hydrogen sulfide can cause visual distortion because of the way it refracts light. Since all surface light is usually lost below a hydrogen sulfide layer, cavern divers should always remain in the freshwater above. A third kind of visual impairment occurs in marine caves which have layers of water with different concentrations of salt. Visual distortion can occur when looking through one layer to another, and when swimming along the interface between layers, or haloclines.
Weather and Geography. The amount of particulates and chemicals found in the water at the beginning of a dive depends in a large part on the weather and presence of sinkholes. Heavy rains will wash tannic acid and particulates into sinkholes. thus if near marshy areas and have numerous sinkholes is limited during rainy season and clearest during droughts. On the other hand springs located along rivers in areas that lack sinkholes and where the surrounding terrain is dry and sandy, tend to be very clear. Only when the rivers rise, causing the springs to reverse flow, can dark river water be found in these caverns. Reversing tidal currents in blue holes may also alter visibility by bringing turbid ocean water into the cave. While the water visibility may change due to conditions outside the diver’s control, such as a sudden rainstorm that washes mud into the cavern, loss of visibility during a dive is most frequently caused by diver silting. With the careless flip of a fin, a diver may reduce visibility for hundreds of feet. Silting is most serious in caves which contain little or no current. In small passages silting well reduce vision from ceiling to floor, in large cavern, you may be able to ascend into clearer water near the ceiling to exit.
Restrictions. Localized narrowings of cave passages are called restrictions. Restrictions greatly complicate silting.
Large passages and mazes. Passages frequently look quite different when you are returning the other direction. You must use a guide line to the exit and keep it in site, run it along the wall or floor rather than mid water. Line traps, many passages are large at one end and narrow at the other end if you pull your line through and silt the narrow end it can be difficult to exit camber, in such cases the line will appear to pass right into the wall. Line is routed around rock outcroppings, keep tension on it at all times to hold it in place.
Cave-ins are very rare, there have been some documented cases of divers finding evidence of cave ins between dives. When a cave is submerged at all times the water serves as a support. This situation is more stable than one subjected to alternation periods of partial and complete submergence, accompanied by drastic changes in the groundwater saturation of the surface bedrock forming the ceiling, which place tremendous strain on the support structures. Resulting in a sinkhole, some are ancient and therefore relatively stable and safe. Others are more recent, or even active and visibly unstable.
Appendix ISALUTERWP
Note, IMO the differences in data figures given for weapons systems, (that I did not mention in my data) are not enough to make any practical tactical difference. Remember all these figures are just the revealed data, and should be judged as rounded off and ball park to give one an idea of capabilities. Figures also change with different types of ammo and or weather conditions and altitudes.
EQUIPMENT AND WEAPONS AVAILABLE:
Example of Equipment and Weapons Available report; aka e-war. Howitzers, cannons, guns, motors;
I) I.D. designation/ AKA, nicknames, classification. Note classification is detailed under (U).
2A36 Giatsint-B. A45 Sprut-A, (NATO classification - Squid). 2A75. 2S19 msta. 2S25 Sprut-SD. AMX 30 AUF1. AS-90. G6- 52. K-9 thunder. M107. M109. M110. M119. Pantsir-S1 (NATO reporting name SA-22 Greyhound). PZH 2000. PLZ 45. SSPH. TRF-1.
Belgium Towed rifled motor 120mm rg. 8km. 13km ram.
MOTORS;
60 mm motor range (3500m) 3960 yard 2 ¼ miles. 81 (M29A1) range (4600m) 5280 yards 3 miles (M252) (5600m) 6160 yd 3 ½ miles, 107mm motor range (6800m) 7480 yd 4 ¼ miles, 120mm motor (M285) 7200m 7920 yd 4 ½ miles, 105 (M102) (11500m) 12320 yards 7 miles, 105mm (M119) (14000m) 15840 yd 9 miles, 155mm (M198) (18000m) 19800 yd 11 ¼ miles. Note all figures would double using ICMs.
Types of rounds;
PROJECTILE
60 HE,WP, ILLUM, 81mm HE WP ILLUM, , 81mm (M252) HE,WP ILLUM, RAP. 107mm HE,WP ILLUM, 120mm HE ILLUM, SMK, 105mm ILLUM, HEP-T, APICM, CHEM,APERS,RAP. 105mm HE M760
ILLUM, HEP-T, APICM, CHEM,RAP 155mm HE,WP, ILLUM, SMK, CHEM, NUC, RAP, FASCAM, CPHD,
AP/DPICM.
Max rates of fire then sustained rates, information respectfully in order i.e. 60mm 30 rpm for one minute then 20 rpm. 81mm (M29A1) 30 rpm then 8 rpm, 81mm (M252) 30 rpm for two minutes then 15 rpm. 107mm 18 then 3, 120mm 15 for three minutes then 5 rpm. 105mm 10 then 3 rpm both types, 155mm 4 rpm then 2 rpm.
FPF area coverage;
60mm x 2 tubes, (60x30m) 200 x 100 feet. 81mm x 4 tubes (100x35 meters) 300 x 115 feet. 105mm x 6 guns 180 x 40 meters. 107 x 6 tubes 300 x 40 meters. 155mm x 4 guns 200 x 50 meters, x 6 guns 300 x 50, x 8 guns (400 x 50 meters) 1320 or ¼ mile x 165 feet.
Naval guns;
16 inch guns 50 cal. Ranges max and min. 36000 m 900m rates of fire 2 rpm then 1 rpm.
5 inch 38 cal. Ranges 15000m 900m rates of fire 22 rpm then 15 rpm.
5 inch 54 cal. Range 22000 m 900m 40 rpm then 20 rpm.
Note all manner of projectiles.
Total weight for the M224 mortar, including M8 handheld baseplate and SL3, is 76.6 pounds.
M888 60mm rounds weigh 3.9 pounds each, so firing just 8 rounds in 1 minute expends more than double the weight of ammunition.
M141 SMAW-D disposable rocket
#CALIBER
60-mm
81-mm
81-mm
(improved)
107-mm
120-mm
105-mm
105-mm
155-mm
MODEL
M224
M29A1
M252
M30
M285
M102
M119
M198
MAX RANGE
(HE)(m)
3,490
4,595
5,608
6,840
7,200
11,500
14,000
18,100
PLANNING
RANGE (m)
11,500
11,500
14,600
PROJECTILE
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
RP
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
HE,SMK,
ILLUM,
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
HEP-T,
APICM,
CHEM,
APERS,
RAP
HE M760
ILLUM,
HEP-T,
APICM,
CHEM,
RAP
HE,WP,
ILLUM,
SMK,
CHEM,
NUC,
RAP,
FASCAM,
CPHD,
AP/DPICM
MAX RATE
OF FIRE
30 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
30 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
30 RPM
FOR
2 MIN
18 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
15 RPM
FOR
3 MIN
10 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
10 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
4 RPM
FOR
1 MIN
SUSTAINED
RATE OF FIRE
(rd/min)
20
8
15
3
5
3
3
2
MIMIMUM
RANGE (m)
70
70
83
770
180

DIRECT
FIRE

FUZES
MO
PD, VT,
TIME,
DLY
PD, VT,
TIME,
DLY
PD, VT,
TIME,
DLY
MO
PD,
VT, MT,
MTSQ,
CP, DLY
PD, VT,
MTSQ,
CP, MT,
DLY
PD, VT,
CP, MT,
MTSQ,
DLY
LEGEND:
AP - Armor Piercing / APERS – Antipersonnel / APICM - Aitipersonnel Improved Conventional Munitions / CHEM – Chemical / CP - Concrete Piercing / CPHD – Copperhead / DLY – Delay / DPICM - Dual Purpose Inproved Conventional Munitions / FASCAM - Family of Scatterable Mines / HE - High Explosive / HEP-T - High Explosive Plastic Tracer
ILLUM – Illumination / MIN – Minute / MO - Multioption - VT, PD, DLY / MT - Mechanical Time / MTSQ - Mechanical Time Super Quick / NUC – Nuclear / PD - Point Detonating / RAP - Rocket Assisted Projectile / RP - Red Phosphorous
RPM - Rounds per minute / SMK – Smoke / TIME - Adjustable Time Delay / VT - Variable Time / WP - White Phosphorous
S) Numbers, manufactured, available. Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording. Note with weights weapons are list from heaviest to lightest.
Weight K-9 56 tons. PZH 2000 53 tons/ turret only 12 tons, mounted on the same chassis as the U.S. MLRS rocket launcher, the AGM weighs 27 tons. If on a heavy (6x6) truck about 23 tons. G-6 47 tons. 2S19 42 tons. M109 28 tons. 2A36 10.5 tons. TRF-1 10 tons. 2A45 (towing) 7 tons, (self-propelled) 7.5 tons, (firing) 14,495 lbs. M119 4520 lbs/2.25 tons. Width/track. 2A36 the under carriage is 2.340 m. M109 10 ft, 2A45 (towing) 2.66 m (8.72 ft) (self-propelled) 2.66 m (8.72 ft). Track: 2A45 7.21 ft. Length 2A36 is 12.92 m long in transport configuration and 12.30 m long in firing configuration. M109 30 ft. 2A45 (towing) 23.35 ft, (self-propelled) 22.27 ft. TRF-1 60 feet.
Height 2A36 2.760 m (in transport configuration) M109 11 ft. 2A45 (towing) 6.85 ft (self-propelled) 7.70 ft. Ground clearance / fording: 2A45 fording 1.18 ft.
A) Activity this is recent activities observed. Here again we use the five Ws and a H. Who unit or individual. What specific activities observed i.e. deployment. Where specific locations of activities i.e. deployment. When time and date. How are they manufactured (note information would only be mentioned if it points out any weaknesses or strength of the system), field stripping i.e. disassemble, reassemble, operated, specific details on individual techniques of carrying or deploying. Trouble shooting, I.A.D.
How example; 2A36 the gun can be used in various weather conditions and has been tested in temperatures ranging from −50 °C to 50 °C. M119 it can be easily airlifted, even by helicopter, or dropped by parachute. M119 It does not need a recoil pit. Pantsir-S1 a number of targets that can be simultaneously engaged: 4 (three by radar, one by electro-optic) Maximum number of targets engagement rate: 10 per minute. Reaction time: 4-6 seconds (from target acquisition to firing first missile) Aerial targets includes everything with minimum radar-cross-section of 2 cm sq. to 3 m sq. and speeds up to a maximum of 1000 meter/second within a maximum range of 20,000 meters and heights up to 15,000 meters. The two independent guidance channels - radar and EO - allow two targets to be engaged simultaneously. Maximum engagement rate is up to 10 targets per minute. PzH 2000 the turret contains a fully automated loading system. TRF-1 Set up 2 minutes.
It is assumed that the eight Javelin systems at battalion will be moved to the companies and four additional systems purchased. This raises the issue, outside the scope of this article, of what to do with the 16 Marines who man the Javelin in weapons company. Possibilities are to have them continue to man ground-mounted antitank guided missiles (ATGMs), add them to the scout/sniper platoon for improved battalion intelligence capability, add them to the combined antiarmor team platoons as dismounts, or move them to the infantry companies.
L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.
2A36 Soviet/Russian Armenia, Azerbaijan, Finland designated 52 K 89, Georgia, Iraq, Lebanon. 2A45, Sprut A and 2A45M Sprut B, Russia, Hungary, Yugoslavia. 2A45, Sprut A and 2A45M Sprut B, Russia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, 2S19 Russian. AMX 30 AUF1 France. AS-90 UKs. G6-52 South African. K-9 thunder South Korea, M109 US Army, (NATO) it is deployed at 54 units per armored division and mechanized division (3 battalions of 18 vehicles equipping 3 batteries of 6 M-109). M119 UK, USA. M110 Spain and US. Pantsir-S1 Ru. the system produced by KBP of Tula. Pantsir-S1 RU. Iran, India, Syria, Algeria, UAE. PLZ 45 China, PZH 2000 Germany, SSPH primus, TRF-1 Cyprus, Saudi Arabia.
U) Units Variants, caliber, photos, decals, color schemes. And also Utility uses/function/classification mounted or unmounted direct or indirect fire, crew served, small arms. Note ID first then photo etc.
2A36 Giatsint-B 152 mm 54 caliber. Towed Rifled howitzer.
2A45 Sprut-A, (NATO classification - Squid) are the designations of the Soviet Smoothbore 125 mm anti-tank gun. 2A45M Sprut-B Self propelled towed gun.
2A45

2S19 msta 152 mm. Self propelled howitzer. 2S25 Sprut-SD A self propelled gun mounted on the BMD-3 chassis with a turret mounting the stabilized 2A75 125mm smoothbore gun. AMX 30 AUF1, 155mm. AS-90 155mm. G6- 52 155 mm. Self propelled wheeled vehicle, K-9 thunder, 155 mm. M107 175-mm. self-propelled gun. M109 is a 155mm. Self propelled indirect fire support. M110 8” 203 mm howitzer self propelled.
M119, Caliber 105mm towed howitzer. M119A1, M119A2.
M119 photo edited
Pantsir-S1 is a combined surface-to-air missile and 30 mm gun (Designation: 2A38M) twin-barrel automatic AAA system for motorized AKA mechanized troops up to regimental size or as defensive asset of higher ranking air defense systems like S-300/S-400. Mounted either on a tracked or wheeled vehicle or stationary. Variants the system is a further development of SA-19/SA-N-11. A simplified, lower-cost version is also being developed for export, with only the electro-optic fire control system fitted.
Pantsir-S1 photo edited
PZH 2000, 155mm. The AGM (Artillery Gun Module) puts the 12.5 ton PzH 2000 turret on a lighter armored vehicle, or heavy truck. PLZ 45, 155 mm. SSPH primus 155mm. TRF-1 155mm towed howitzer. Belgium Towed rifled motor 120mm rg. 8km. 13km ram.
T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.
2A36 entered service in 1976. 2A45 created in the late 1980s. AS-90? M107 1950s.
M109 1960 M119 Place of origin United Kingdom 1975. M110 No longer in use. PZH 2000?
E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes. Transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional details are located under other categories.
2A36 Carriage Split trail, sole plate, auxiliary power unit and hydraulics. Have been modernized and are equipped with: Battery "NAP" satellite positioning unit Satellite receiver, Antenna unit, Self-orientating gyroscopic angle-measuring system, Computer, Mechanical speed gauge. 2A45 Crew of seven. The most distinctive feature of the Sprut-B is its APU. APU can propel the gun on relatively flat surfaces (up to 15 degrees slope) and at 14km/h on roads. This gives the gun a measure of mobility on the battle field - although it takes 2 minutes to go from firing position to traveling position and 1.5 minutes to go from traveling position to firing position. During the day the OP4M-48A direct fire sight is used, at night the 1PN53-1 night vision sight is used. For indirect fire the 2Ts33 iron sights are used, along with the PG-1m panoramic sight. The barrel features a thermal sleeve to prevent temperature changes affecting the accuracy. M109 A2s and A3s improved with Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical / (NBC/RAM) improvements, including air purifiers, heaters, and Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) gear. Fire direction center (FDC). The battery FDCs in turn coordinates fires through a battalion or higher FDC. This allows the Paladin to halt from the move and fire within 30 seconds with accuracy equivalent to the previous models when properly emplaced, laid, and safed--A process that required several minutes under the best of circumstances. (M992 the Field Artillery Ammunition Supply Vehicle (FAASV) is built on the chassis of the M109-series. Has a taller superstructure to store 93 rounds and an equivalent number of powders and primers. There is a maximum of 90 conventional rounds, 45 each in two racks, and 3 M712 Copperhead rounds. Much of the remaining internal crew space is taken up by a hydraulically powered conveyor system designed to allow the quick uploading of rounds or transfer of rounds. Most early models had an additional mechanism called an X-Y Conveyor to lift the rounds into the honeycomb-like storage racks in the front of the superstructure. A ceiling plate above the two racks can be unbolted and opened to allow the racks to be winched out of the vehicle. Pantsir-S1 fire control system includes a target acquisition radar and dual waveband tracking radar, which operates in the UHF and EHF waveband. Detection range is 32-36 km and tracking range is 24-28 km for a target with 2 m sq. RCS. This radar tracks both targets and the surface to air missile while in flight. As well as radar, the fire control system also has an electro-optic channel with long-wave thermal imager and infrared direction finder, including digital signal processing and automatic target tracking.
R) Reinforcements; Crews, duties and function.
2S19 crew of 5. G-6 crew 3. M109, 8 (Gun Commander, Driver, 3 x Gunners, 3 x Cannoneers) M109 (8) Paladin (4) The crew of the M109 consists of a section chief, driver, three cannoneers who prepare the ammunition, load, and fire the weapon, and two gunners who aim the cannon. The gunner aims the cannon left or right (deflection), the assistant gunner aims the cannon up and down (quadrant). The M109A6 Paladin needs only one cannoneer and two ammunition handlers for a total crew of six. M119 crew of 7. Pantsir-S1 Crew: 1 - 2 operators for the air defense system and 1 driver. PzH 2000 a two man crew, one of them enters the firing information.
General notes - Artillery gun chief makes sure right fuse setting, round and charge is used, keeps a log. This helps with accuracy/adjustments, maintenance, barrel ware, and inventories.
W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.
Secondary weapons; M109 .50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 machine gun 500 rounds, Mk 19 Mod 3 (40 mm) Automatic Grenade Launcher, or M60 or M240 (7.62 mm) machine gun.
P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;
Ranges, Max over all or max effective (could also include effective at what altitude) in meters for weapon rounds or (operational) miles for vehicles and aircraft. Minimum ranges, safety arming ranges for rounds or danger close for explosives in meters. Note suggested weapons be listed in order of longest ranges.
Speeds muzzle velocity for weapons, rates of fire max or sustained for weapons, mph max or acceleration for vehicles or aircraft.
Trajectories/envelopes Trajectories paths for rounds. Elevation and traverse or gimble limits for weapons. Flight envelopes ceilings climb rates or Angles of attack for aircraft.
Ammo/Fuels type’s and characteristic; warheads fuses casualty radiuses for weapons. Fuels and lubricates for vehicles or aircraft.
Capacity # of rounds in magazines or storage for weapons or gals/lbs of fuel for Vehicles or aircraft.
Causality radius armor Breaching and protection abilities.
Max ranges: AS-90 Range 48 miles. G-6 40 miles. PZH 2000 36 miles. 2A36 Effective range (OFS): 16 miles, (OFARS) 21 miles. M109 11 miles - 18 miles (with rocket-assisted projectile). The replacement of the 23 caliber long barrel with the M284 cannon 39-caliber barrel on the M109A5/A6 increased the range capability to 20 miles. M107. 20 miles. TRF-1 rg. 30km. 2S19 15 miles. M110 Its range varies from 10.5 miles to 20 miles when equipped with a rocket-assisted projectile. M119 7 miles (charge 7); 9 miles (charge 8); 11 miles (M913 rocket assisted projectile) or rocket assisted munitions RAMs the round flies for several seconds before rocket ignition, with M913 HERA Range: 12 miles, M760 HE Range: 9 miles. 2A45 (missile) 3miles, (APFSDS) 1 ½ miles, (HE) 7 miles. The gun can reliably engage targets 2m high at a distance of 1 ½ miles. Pantsir-S1 Gun Max rg: 4km. Pantsir-S1 missile Max rg: 12 miles controlled flight.
Minimum rg. G-6 3000 meters. Pantsir-S1 Gun Min rg: 0.2 meter. Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum range: 2640 feet.
Max operational range 2S19 300 miles M109 250 miles. Road speed; G-6 55 mph wheeled vehicle. 2A45 Towing vehicle: Ural-4320 (6 × 6) truck, MT-LB multipurpose tracked vehicle, Towing speed: (49.7 mph) (in APU mode) 14 km/h (8.69 mph). 2S19 36 mph. M109 35 mph. 2A45 (in APU mode) 31 miles.
Muzzle Velocity 2A36 1850-3200 fps. M107 3000 fps. G-6 3000 fps. Pantsir-S1 Gun 960 m/s
Rates of fire, maximum, sustained,
2A45 6-8 rds/min. 2A36 6 rounds per minute. M109 3 round burst in 15 seconds, 4 round/min maximum for 3 minutes, 1 round/min sustained for one hour. Afterwards one round every 3 minutes. M119 6 rounds/min max; 3 rounds/min sustained, capable of firing up to 400 rounds per day. The Paladin can halt from the move and fire within 30 seconds with accuracy equivalent to the previous models when properly emplaced, laid, and safed--A process that required several minutes under the best of circumstances. M110 3 rounds per minute when at maximum. M110and 1 round per 2 minutes with sustained fire.
Pantsir-S1 Gun Max 2,500 rounds per minute per gun.
TRF-1 3 round burst 6rpm. Casings combustible improves rate of fire nothing to extract.
Elevation and traverse 2A36 elevation -2 to +57 degrees Traverse -25 to +25 degrees. 2A45 Elevation/depression: +25/-6º Traverse: 360º M107 elevation from - 2° to + 65° and in azimuth on 30° on the right and on the left.
M119 Elevation -100 to +1244 mil. TRF-1 Traverse 445 mil left 675 right.
Trajectories/envelopes.
Pantsir-S1The combined gun-missile system has an extremely low altitude engagement capability (targets as low as 15 feet AGL can be engaged by this system). Pantsir-S1 Gun Minimum altitude: 0 meter AGL Pantsir-S1 Gun Maximum altitude: 3 km. Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum altitude: 15 feet AGL. Pantsir-S1 missile Maximum altitude: 10 miles.
Ammo types and characteristics;
2A36 can fire shots especially developed for separate shells and propellant cartridges. - VOF39 with a fragmentation shell OF-29, this shell weighs 100 lbs and contains 15 lbs explosives (A-IX-2). - ZVOF86 with the active-reactive shell OF-59, which can destroy targets at ranges up to 15-17 miles. Atomic munitions of up to 0.1-2 kilotons (these are not legal) - cluster ammunition shell 30-13 with cluster bombs, smart munitions, active and passive radio jamming, anti-tank and smoke shells. 2A45 uses the same split ammunition as the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks. With an additional piece of equipment of the 9S53, laser guided projectiles like the Svir or 9K120 Reflecks can be fired. G6-52 ammo capacity 45 rounds and 50 charges. Projectile wt. 9kg.. Fire on the move. From its position it can cover area of 1700km. M107 Fired a 174-pound projectile. M109 Projectile weights 98 pounds. Normal ammo carried 30-40 rounds. (40 rounds, 64 charges). The M485 Illumination round burns for 120 seconds. Approximately 600 meters above the ground and illuminate an area of approximately 1000 meters. M110 The 8-inch howitzer fired a 200-pound projectile. M119A1 fires all standard NATO ammunition as well as special rocket-assisted projectiles. The 105 mm projectile and the propelling charge are loaded separately. M1 High explosive, M314 Illuminating, M60/M60A2 White phosphorus (smoke), M913 HERA, M760 HE.
Pantsir-S1 Gun Projectile weight: 0.97 kg. Ammunition: a variety of ammunition - HE (High Explosive) fragmentation, fragmentation tracer, armor-piercing with tracer. Ammunition type can be selected by the crew depending on the nature of the target.
PzH 2000 AGM, using 155mm GPS guided rounds (like the new U.S. Excalibur), would be able to fire one or two rounds, and get away before counter-fire could arrive. The turret capacity 30 shells and propellant charges.
TRF-1 Fires all 155mm ammo.
Causality radius,
M109 150’ – 300’ max.
Armor breaching and protection properties.
Note on average a 155 mm projectile's ability to penetrate concrete (38 inches).
PzH 2000 most of the weight (55 tons) is armor, to protect the gun from enemy counter-fire.
Capacity
TRF-1 Ammo tractor 56 shots 32 on pallet 24 in rack. Pantsir-S1 Gun 700 rounds per gun.
Pantsir-S1 missile Maximum speed (after 2s in boost phase): 4000 fps.
Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum speed: 2300 fps (deceleration in sustainer stage is 120 fps per ½ mile)
Pantsir-S1 missile War head 35 lbs.
Excalibur means 80-90 % less ammo has to be fired, resulting in less wear and tear (and less time needed for maintenance), and less time replenishing ammo supplies, and more time being ready for action.
E-WAR example; Rockets and missiles;
I) Unit I.D. designation aka, nicknames. Note classification is detailed under the second (U).
B- 12 107 mm rocket. B-21 122 mm rocket. BM-30 MLRS. ZelZal-2.
Haseb Iranian rocket, 107mm 5.5 mile range and a 15lb warhead. Note B-12 has 3lbs of explosives.
Arash Iranian rocket, 122mm 11 mile range and a 40lb warhead. Note there are two types one a little longer.
Oghab Iranian rocket, 230mm 25 mile range and a 150lb warhead.
Fadjr 3 Iranian rocket 240mm 30 mile range and a 100lb. warhead.
Khaibar-1 Iranian rocket 302mm 90 miles range and a 220 lb warhead.
Fadjr 5 Iranian rocket 333mm, 50 miles range and a 200 lb. warhead.
Shahin I, Iranian rocket 333mm, 8 mile range and a 400 lb. warhead.
Shahin II, Iranian rocket 333mm, 12 mile range and a 400 lb. warhead.
S) Numbers, manufactured, available. BM-30 Russian: 300 in 2001(100 in 1995), Algeria: 18 systems in 1999. India: 38 systems to be delivered by 2008 and additional 24 systems by 2010.Total cost $750 million. Kuwait: 27 systems in 1996. Turkmenistan: 6 on order Belarus: 48 system in 1990 Ukraine: unknown number.
Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording.
Weight Fadjr (900 pound) 333mm (one ton). Zelzal 2 3.5 tons. B-21 150 lbs 220 mm Syrian model about a third of the weight of rockets like this are the explosive charge in the warhead. B-12 40 lbs
Width
Length B-12 33 inch, B-21 9 feet.
A) Activity this is recent activities observed. Here again we use the five Ws and a H. Who unit or individual. What specific activities observed i.e. deployment. Where specific locations of activities i.e. deployment. When time and date. How are they manufactured (note information would only be mentioned if it points out any weaknesses or strength of the system), field stripping i.e. disassemble, reassemble, operated, specific details on individual techniques of carrying or deploying. Trouble shooting, I.A.D.
How B-12 normally fired, from a launcher, in salvoes of dozens at a time, when used individually, it is more accurate the closer it is to the target. And is very popular with guerillas and terrorists because of its small size and portability. Fadjr rockets brought into Lebanon are believed to have come in individually, to be fired from locally built launchers. ZelZal-2 is moved, and launched, on a specially designed heavy truck.
L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.
B- 12 Russian. B-21 Russian. BM-30 Russian, Algeria, India, Kuwait, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Ukraine.
ZelZal-2 Iranian.
U) Units Variants, caliber, photos, decals, color schemes. And also Utility uses/function/classification mounted or unmounted direct or indirect fire, crew served, small arms. Note ID first then photo etc.
B-12 this design has been copied by many nations.
BM-30 Smerch (Tornado) or 9K58 is a 300mm multiple rocket launcher.
Photo edited
Fadjr rockets both 240mm and 333mm are normally mounted on modified Mercedes-Benz 2624 15 ton trucks.

ZelZal-2 (version of the 40 year old Russian FROG missile) 610mm
T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.
E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes.
R) Crew transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional details are located under other categories.
BM-30 3 men
W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.
P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;
Ranges, Max over all or max effective (could also include effective at what altitude) in meters for weapon rounds or (operational) miles for vehicles and aircraft. Minimum ranges, safety arming ranges for rounds or danger close for explosives in meters. Note suggest weapons listed in order of longest ranges.
Speeds muzzle velocity for weapons, rates of fire max or sustained for weapons, mph max or acceleration for vehicles or aircraft.
Trajectories/envelopes Trajectories paths for rounds. Elevation and traverse or gimble limits for weapons. Flight envelopes ceilings climb rates or Angles of attack for aircraft.
Ammo/Fuels type’s and characteristics; warheads fuses casualty radiuses for weapons. Fuels and lubricates for vehicles or aircraft. Capacity # of rounds in magazines or storage for weapons or gals/lbs of fuel for Vehicles or aircraft.
Casualty radius armor Breaching and protection abilities.
Range Zelzal 2 range of 200 kilometers Zelzal 2 with strap-on inertial guidance systems CEP of 100 m.
FROG unguided, rocket, with a range of about 65 kilometers. FROG spun rapidly after launch, stabilizing its trajectory, and a CEP 800 meters. BM-30 42 miles and 54 miles. Fadjr 5 range of 50 miles. 220mm Syrian model, with a range of 39 miles (65 kilometers). Fadjr 3 range of 30 miles. B-12 3.5 miles. B-21 range 20 kilometers. (WW II Russian design. 122mm range of 20 km and a 13 pound warhead) There were also a number of longer range 122mm rockets, 30 kilometers. Apparently, this model had the same 13 pound warhead, and achieved its increased range by being longer and heavier. B-21 unguided not much better accuracy than the 107mm. Haseb 107mm 5.5 miles.
Rates of fire, BM-30 Emplacement Time: 3 min, Displacement Time: 2 min, Launch Rate; Salvo Time: 12 rounds in 38 seconds. Reload Time: 20 minutes.
Ammo types/warheads/fuses, BM-30 Cluster warhead # 72 bomblets. Also thermobaric, frag etc. B-12 3 lbs of explosive warhead. 220mm Syrian model 90 pound warhead. Zelzal 2 1000 lbs warhead. Fadjr 3 40-110 lbs warhead. Fadjr 5 200 pound warhead.
Capacity; Launcher: 9A52-2, 300-mm, 12 tubes. Fadjr there are either twelve 240mm (900 pound) rockets or four 333mm (one ton) rockets.
E-WAR example; DIRECT FIRE WEAPONS; AAA cannons, Grenade launchers, Heavy machine guns.
I) I.D. designation/ AKA, nicknames, classification. Note classification is detailed under (U).
2K22 Tunguska/ZSU 30-2. ZU-23-2. S-60 and Type 59.
S) Numbers, manufactured, available. Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording. Note with weights weapons are list from heaviest to lightest.
Weight: ZU-23-2 in firing position 0.95 tons. Width: ZU-23-2 in firing position 2880 mm. Length: ZU-23-2 in firing position, 4570 mm. Height: ZU-23-2 in firing position 1220 mm
A) Activity this is recent activities observed. Here again we use the five Ws and a H. Who unit or individual. What specific activities observed i.e. deployment. Where specific locations of activities i.e. deployment. When time and date. How are they manufactured (note information would only be mentioned if it points out any weaknesses or strength of the system), field stripping i.e. disassemble, reassemble, operated, specific details on individual techniques of carrying or deploying. Trouble shooting, I.A.D.
How ZU-23-2 can be prepared for firing from the march position in 30 seconds and in emergency can be fired from traveling position. The weapon is aimed and fired manually, with the help of a ZAP-23 optical-mechanical sight which uses manually entered target data to provide some automatic aiming. It also has a straight-tube telescope for use against ground targets such as troops and lightly armoured vehicles.
2K22 Tunguska/ZSU 30-2 It is designed to provide day and night protection for infantry and tank regiments against low-flying aircraft and helicopters in any weather condition
2K22/ZSU 30-2 wt 3400kg. op rg 500 km, sp 65km.
L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.
2K22/ZSU 30-2 Belarus, India - 66 - 92 2K22M/M1 ordered in 1996 (24-50 2K22M), 2001 (14 2K22M) and 2005 (28 2K22M1), Morocco - 12 2K22M1 ordered in 2005, Burma – Unconfirmed, Russia - 256 2K22M/M1
Ukraine. S-60/Type 59 Ru./CIS and 40 other nations. ZU-23-2 Ru./CIS and 40 other nations.
U) Units Variants, caliber, photos, decals, color schemes. And also Utility uses/function/classification mounted or unmounted direct or indirect fire, crew served, small arms. Note ID first then photo etc.
2K22 Tunguska (Russian 2К22 "Тунгуска" - Tunguska River) Its NATO reporting name is SA-19 Grison, aka ZSU 30-2 in the 1980s it is a Self Propelled AAA with a surface-to-air gun and missile system. variants 2K22M1
2K22/ZSU 30-2
Photo edited
S-60/Type 59 57mm x 348mm asp, AAA Ru. And China.
S-60/type 59

ZU-23-2, better known as ZU-23, is a towed Soviet short-range air defense cannon. 23mm 87.3 calibers Barrel length: 2010 mm. Variants; ZSU-4 23 Shilka quad gun self propelled version with four cannons.
ZU-23-2

T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.
2K22/ZSU 30-2 1982-present in 2003 the Russian armed forces accepted the Tunguska-M1 or 2K22M1 into service.
S-60/Type 59 1950. ZU-23-2 entered service in 1960
E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes. Transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional details are located under other categories.
R) Reinforcements; Crews, duties and function.
Crew: ZU-23-2 (6 crew) It mounts two 2A14 23 mm auto cannons on a small trailer which can be converted into a stationary mount for firing the guns. 2K22/ZSU 30-2 crew 4
W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.
P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;
ZU-23-2 Armament: two 2A14 Afanasyev-Yakushev 23 mm auto cannons.
Effective range: ZU-23-2 2 – 1.5 miles. S-60/Type 59 6km radar guided, 4km optical guided. WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm max 5.5 miles, effective surface 2.5 miles.
Effective altitude: WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm air rg. 3km max altitude 6km. Armor pent. 50mm at 500m, 30mm at 1km. ZU-23-2 Vietnam AAA effective range ¾ miles. S-60/Type 59 ¾ -1 mile.
Muzzle velocity: S-60/Type 59 3300 fps. ZU-23-2 3000 fps. WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm, 2900 fps.
Rate of fire; Cyclic: ZU-23-2 2,000 rpm, Practical: ZU-23-2 400 rpm, WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm 200 rpm.
S-60/Type 59 100-120 rpm.
Ammunition; ZU-23-2 Projectile weight: 178 g, BZT Armor Piercing Incendiary Tracer (API-T) rounds
OFZ High Explosive Incendiary Tracer (HEI-T) rounds.
WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm Round wt. 1.50 kg. Explosive 35gm.
2K22/ZSU 30-2 Variety of missile, basically 8km rg. With altitude of 3500 meters.
2k rounds of 30mm ammo can be carried. . The dual 2A38M 30 mm cannons are fired alternately. They have a combined rate of fire of between 3,900 and 5,000 rounds per minute (1,950 to 2,500 rpm for each gun), and have a muzzle velocity of 960 m/s. Bursts of between 83 and 250 rounds are fired as determined by the target type, with an engagement range of between 0.2 and 4.0 km and to an altitude of 4 km. HE-T and HE-I shells are used fitted with a A-670 time and impact fuze and the cannons can elevate and depress to +87 to -10 degrees. Studies were conducted that demonstrated that a 30 mm cannon would require 2-3 times fewer shells to destroy a given target than the 23 mm cannon of the ZSU-23-4, and that firing at a MiG-17 flying at 300 m/s, with an identical mass of 30 mm projectiles would result in a kill probability of 1.5 times greater than with 23 mm projectiles. An increase in the maximum engagement altitude from 2,000 to 4,000 m and increased effectiveness when engaging lightly armored ground targets were also cited additionally the system should have a reaction time no greater than 10 seconds compared to the reaction time of missile-based system, approximately 30 seconds. The 2K22 has two primary modes of operation, radar and optical, in radar mode the target tracking is fully automatic, with the guns aimed using data from the radar. In optical mode the gunner tracks the target through an 8 x magnification (8 degree field of view) stabilized sight 1A29M, with the radar providing range data.
The M1 introduced the new 9M113-M1 missile which made a number of changes allowing the 2K22M1 to engage small targets like cruise missiles by replacing the 8 beam laser proximity fuse with a radio fuse. Additional modification afforded greater resistance to IR countermeasures by supplementing the missile tracking flare with a pulsed IR beacon. Other improvements included an increased missile range to 10 km, improved optical tracking and accuracy, improved fire control co-ordination between components of a battery and the command post. Overall the Tunguska-M1 has a combat efficiency 1.3 - 1.5 times greater than the Tunguska-M.
The Tunguska family was until recently a unique and high competitive weapons system, though in 2007 the Pantsir gun and missile system entered production at KBP, a descendant of the Tunguska the Pantsir system offers even greater performance than its predecessor.
Mortars capable of 30 rpm. 60 mm wt 50 lbs, shell wt 10 lbs, 1 ½ lbs explosive charge. Range 3 km. muzzle velocity 500’ps. Note with 60 mm your hope is to hit something flammable. 81 mm wt 100 lbs, shell wt 12- 15 lbs at max range 3-4 km. Muzzle velocity 211mps 600 ‘ per second. 15-25 rpm, 4 lbs explosive charge. 120 mm wt 700 lbs, shell wt 33 lbs 6 lbs explosive charge. Range 6-10 km. Other muzzle velocities, 240 mm 362 mps /40 mm 250 ps. Rockets; Arash 12 mile range Katusha 10 miles range 10’long 120 lbs 122 mm. Fajr 3, 30 mile range 3 Fajr 5 50 mile range. 200 mm Zalzal 150 mile range. Rocket motors solid metal becomes penetrating projective upon impact c-802 100 mile range. WWII armed grenades after lunch would leave a trail of smoke to target. Report Vs impact sounds, holding round at muzzle, timing release. High drag devices to shorten mortar rocket range or stir around obstacles this with rockets too. Aircraft canon 30mm gun systems were very lethal and destroyed targets at ranges out to 4 kilometers when accurate.
USS Wisconsin crew member saying the 23 inch gun shells would take about 40 seconds to travel the 23 miles to target. Note that’s about two seconds per mile.
weight for the M240 with spare barrel, A-bag, tripod, and flex mount is 58.5 pounds. A squad of 2 MGs firing at the rapid rate for 1 minute will expend 200 rounds of 7.62mm ammunition weighing 14 pounds.
Appendix Patrol order part A
Drift formula objects usually fallow aircraft for 300’ before being effected by wind. Aircraft height in feet multiplied by wind in knots multiplied by a constant of three for bundles, four for troops. Dispersion formula ½ of aircrafts speed in knots multiplied by departure time in seconds gives area needed on ground in meters. Distance Formula (D = RT). Used to compute DZ length. (D is the required length of the DZ in meters; R is the ground speed of the aircraft in meters per second; and T is the time required for the aircraft to release its cargo.) To use this formula, some conversions are required. Airspeed to Ground Speed. Aircraft’s airspeed (expressed in knots) ground speed (expressed in meters per second) (knots x .51). Round up the answer to the next whole number. Multiply (knots x .51) (1 knot equals .51 meter per second). Drop speeds for different types of aircraft drop speeds: UH-1 50 to 70 knots, UH-60 65 to 75 knots, CH-46 (USMC) 80 to 90 knots, CH-53 (USMC) 90 to 110 knots, C-5/130/141/17/KC-130 130 to 135 knots (personnel) 150 knots—optimum 130 knots for all loads (door bundles, CDS, and heavy equipment). Time Over DZ Requirement. Allow 1 second for each paratrooper to exit the aircraft; do not include the first paratrooper. Paratrooper may exit both doors simultaneously. The door with the most paratroopers is used to calculate the time required. Allow 3 seconds per bundle to exit; do not include the first bundle. EXAMPLE: D = RT What length DZ would 8 jumpers require when jumping from an aircraft flying at a drop speed of 90 knots? Step 1: Solve for R (90 knots x .51) = 45.90 meters per second. Step 2: Solve for T: number of jumpers x 1 - the first jumper (8 x 1 - 1) = 7 seconds. Step 3: D: 45.90 meters per second x 7 seconds = 321.30 meters. Always (round up) to the nearest whole number. Time Formula (T = D/R). Used by JM if a DZ is less than the required length, solving this formula provides the seconds required to exit jumpers over the DZ in one pass. (T = time) meter length of DZ, divided by meters per second). Is the time the aircraft is over the DZ in seconds. Any fractional answer is rounded down to the next whole number. (D = length) of the DZ in meters, and (R = ground speed) rate of the aircraft in meters per second. EXAMPLE: T = D/R How many paratroopers from a CH-47 (drop speed of 90 knots) can land on a 750-meter DZ each pass? T = Number of paratroopers. D = DZ length is 750 meters (given). R = Airspeed is 46 meters per second (90 knots x .51 = 45.9; round up to 46). Solution: T = D/R (D ÷ R). D/R = 750 meters divided by 46 meters per second = 16.3 seconds. T = 16 seconds (round down). 16 seconds over DZ x 1 Paratroopers per second + 1 paratrooper (the first paratrooper exiting the aircraft does not affect the number of seconds spent over the DZ) = 17 parachutists. Thus, 17 parachutists per pass can land on the 750-meter DZ. MT-1X canopies 35 mph of forward speed with on wind. So theoretically you could land in winds a little stronger. MX-360 range over water about 5 miles. World record; nine mile flight path four minutes.
SP parachute drops of supplies. Accuracy on average 185 meters of the aim point. JPADS (Joint Precision Airdrop System) and ICDS (Improved Container Delivery System). Both of these are systems whereby pallets of supplies are equipped with GPS, and mechanical controls, to guide the direction of the descending parachute for pinpoint landings. With the new delivery systems, it's possible to do night drops, which is preferred when you don't want to alert nearby enemy troops. 185 meters is usually very far off for JPADS as 10- 20 meters is more common. From altitudes of 20,000ft and 5 miles away the loads can be dropped. Far from any antiaircraft fire. Water, ammunition, artillery shells, pizza and even artillery itself can be dropped, and even during the middle of the night or cloudy weather.
SP 2000; British officials and RAF personnel are in California to test HAPLSS (High Altitude Parachute Life Support System). This is designed to allow Special Forces to jump from a plane at high altitude and glide several miles (carrying oxygen to breathe) across an enemy border.
Appendix Patrol order part B
Parachuting the dispatcher well order, port stick to stand up (Group of jumpers are called a stick) them he takes up his place by the fuselage door. You leaned forward, picked up your reserves and clip them into place. Next, you have to hook up the static line, a belt of thick webbing to the bar over head. Check equipment, just above rucksack is a control board containing an altimeter and campus. Tape is placed over the muzzle of weapons, to prevent dirt getting into barrels when you land, hand guards taped together to make sure they stay up. Cover all sharp edges to prevent personal injury in case of a bad landing. Main kit is strapped to your harness by rope 15’ long, coiled on your hip, to land with all that weight on your legs, would have broken them. You jettisoned meaning lowered it just before landing. Action stations is the next order. Red light, four seconds, green light you go. In the saddle properly positioned in free fall. (HAHO) There is no sensation of falling. The slipstream carries you down sideways and within a second or two your canopy opens. You pull down on the back lift webs in order to steer. There isn’t a sound, not the faintest breath of wind. (HALO) First wind you encounter is the flow from aircraft if you’re not in the saddle it can start you flipping. If you’re leaning left or right you can start a flat spin. When falling keep your head back. Free falling you maneuver against air resistances. Air at altitude is not very resistant, it’s easy to loose control. Also at altitude jumper falls faster 180 mph instead of 120 -140 mph. With storms main concern for paratrooper is up drafts found around edges (good updraft maybe 1000 feet per minute). Every one in stick needs to pull ripcord at their proper free fall intervals to end up on ground at same point. Opening shock incredible, even when saddled up. Normal landing procedures same as that fallowed by aircraft. You started executing a tight spiral turn right or left to the base leg. Then for an into the wind landing turn again in the same direction. The last maneuver called turning final. Feet and knees together for landing. The parachute drags you slightly, roll on your back and press the release catch. The PX guided tour of the packing plant. Packers added to the silk canopies the minute knots which held everything in its place. The knots had to break during the descent to allow the canopy to deploy correctly. The PX has a skirt of mesh, it doesn’t look like much but it’s a life saver. Apparently the early Para’s kept on getting blown peripheries and piling in. The edge of the canopy got the wind under it and folded, reducing the amount of air inside. That led to a Roman candle, the skirt stops that. Russian roulette this happened if you came out directly above another paratrooper. His canopy captured your air. Your chute would collapse, and you would plummet to a position below him. Then the reverse happened. Your shoot inflated and stole his air. The process continued like this for the entire flight until one of you hit the ground. There are five percent casualties on every jump. Joke; you well find a special spirit amongst those who jump from the sky not found amongst penguins. The penguin is a flightless bird but you are the airborne.
APPENDIX DEF rule # 3
Driver’s taping foot to accelerator. Vehicles used to deliver ransoms low powered car, trunk cut out. Delivery man no shirt. Dump truck for – IFV. Russia during WW2 used dogs for tank killers; they were trained to associate tanks with food. Con- could not tell difference between types. Detonator rod stud up on back with graze fuse.
Castor oil and lacquer for making a clear film.
For design purposes, large scale truck bombs typically contain 10,000 pounds or more of TNT equivalent, depending on the size and capacity of the vehicle used to deliver the weapon. Vehicle bombs that utilize vans down to small sedans typically contain 4,000 to 500 pounds of TNT equivalent, respectively. A briefcase bomb is approximately 50 pounds, and a pipe bomb is generally in the range of 5 pounds of TNT equivalent.
Bomb damage assessment (BDA) for Avg. car bomb structural damage well accrue at 25’ radius, lethal injuries 100’ radius, severe injuries by fragments mostly glass 150’ radius.
Large truck bomb and typical 2k lbs GBU or dumb bomb. Structural damage 150’ radius, lethal injuries 500’ and severe injuries by fragments mostly glass out to 8-900’.
With building security, increasing stand-off also requires more land and more perimeter to secure with barriers, resulting in an increased cost.
For internal weapons, location is dictated by the areas of the building that are publicly accessible (e.g., lobbies, corridors, auditoriums, cafeterias, or gymnasiums). Range or stand-off is measured from the center of gravity of the charge located in the vehicle or other container to the building component under consideration.
Glass cause most fragment injuries, 40% within target building, 25-30% for side walk or adjacent buildings.
Shock wave inters windows the weakest points then pushes up on floors which are not designed to resist upward forces, and have large surface areas. As shockwave engulfs total building pressure is exerted on building from all directions.
Two phases of structural damage initial and progressive collapse.
When shock waves hit objects within line of sight they can be magnified up to 10 times as they bounce off.
Figures are for weight of explosives first then distance and finally overpressures. Placed in automobile 100lbs 50’ 10.0 (psi) 300’ 0.5 (psi), Vans 1k lbs 100’ 10.0, 200’ 2.0, 450’ 1.0, 800’ 0.5, Trucks wt 10k lbs distance 200’ pressure 10.0 distance 500’ 2.0, 1k’ 1.0 2k’ 0.5
Bomb Damage Estimates: Typical window glass breakage with incident overpressure of 0.15 – 0.22 (psi). Minor damage to some buildings 0.5 – 1.1 (psi), Panels of sheet metal buckled with 1.1 – 1.8 (psi), Failure of concrete block walls with 1.8 – 2.9 (psi), Collapse of wood framed buildings with 5.0 (psi), Serious damage to steel framed buildings with 4 – 7 (psi), Severe damage to reinforced concrete structures with 6 – 9 (psi), Probable total destruction of most buildings with 10 – 12 (psi)
Small Car bomb shrapnel hundreds of feet, fire ball 25’ diam. 50-70’ height
CBB hundreds of peaces shrapnel twice speed of bullet 13’ casualty radius.
Bouncing betty height of mans heart 38’ casualty radius
Clay more and other directional 600’ casualty radius
Two lbs of explosives 81mm mortar 6’ blast effective/casualty radius, 2k lbs bomb 75’MOAB radius 600’.
BDA bomb damage assessment. With after action report note location of unexploded munitions.
All items of IED must be removed from scene.
CNN Dragon missile rocket motor orange fire ball, TOW from Bradley wt fire ball.
AAA shell explosions lack flames, mortars or artillery shell too.
Phosphorus bomb there is a flash in the sky makes fizzing sound. It is a Chemical incendiary bomb burst in sky sending long white tendrils down on target.
“Judging by the small chunks of concrete it was probably a large 2k lbs”.
Holes in roof in the direction of retreating enemy covering there routes.
Katushya rockets 80 lbs with warheads at rear of rocket; impact produces small creator and large gray pattern with yellow and black streaks. Center of impact darker than surroundings.
Normally Creator diameter and depth are less with dry soil Vs wet. Shockwaves transmit threw wet clay are 50x more powerful than threw lose sand. IEDs can produce sandy craters rimmed with black. Area scourged with black shut and blood. Bone fragments, bodies burned to skeletons, small peaces and piles of skin. Heads flying off, and fingers used for I.D. Throats and lungs burned. Many KIA with no apparent signs of death reason multiple detonations of MRLS caused massive fluctuation of air pressure with in bombarded zone damages the lungs.
IED Initiation Systems:
Trip-Wire (pull); A wire attached to one or more mines to increase the activation area. Pressure on or breaking of the tripwire will activate the mine fuze. A tripwire is normally attached to a bounding or fragmentation-type mine. Often employed in a nuisance minefield, it is also used in the forward rows of anti-tank, anti-personnel, and mixed minefields.
Pressure; Some of the more common and older mines use pressure-sensitive plates or hammers to initiate the explosive. Pressure fuses are used for both anti-personnel and anti-tank mines.
Acoustic; Utilizes microphones to detect the approach of a vehicle. Usually the primary sensor will “awake” a secondary IR or laser sensor.
Infrared Sensors; Once activated, the IR sensor detects and tracks the target until engagement is complete.
Tilt-rod; With this type, there is a post or pole normally attached to a fuze mechanism on the top of a mine. Pressure against the tilt rod activates the charge by breaking or releasing a mechanical retaining device, thereby initiating the detonation chain.
Influence/Proximity; Activation of the mine is caused by the magnetic influence of a vehicle's mass. Employed primarily against vehicles, aircraft and ships; these mines include radar, infrared, magnetic, acoustic, and seismic.
Command-Detonated; These have the ability to be detonated remotely.
Double Impulse; This is usually an anti-tank mine that requires two separate pressures on the fuze to set off the detonation chain.
Chemical-Friction Fuze; This has a fuze in which substances are separated until required for action. After they are brought into contact and unite chemically, an explosion is produced.
Cover the sandbags with heavy conveyor belts or rubber matting to reduce secondary fragments.
Strive for uniformity of appearance between vehicles. Cross-load key personnel and equipment.
Claymore Tips:
Claymores are factory-packed “backwards;” i.e., to be emplaced from the firing position to the mine position, with the excess wire left at the mine. This is corrected by removing all the firing wire from the plastic spool, discarding the spool, re-rolling the wire in an “S” or “Figure 8" fashion, and replacing it in the bag to enable the mine to be emplaced first and the wire laid back to the firing position. The clacker with circuit tester attached is preconnected to the firing wire and stowed in the mine pouch. The unit commander must make the decision to either prime the mine before departing on the mission, or to only put the shipping plugs on the electric and nonelectric blasting caps to speed priming during emplacement.
Dual-prime each claymore for both electric and nonelectric firing. The time fuses should be pre-cut for 30-, 60-, or 120-second delay for pursuit/break-contact situations. However, the burn time on the fuse becomes undependable the longer the fuse is exposed to wet/humid conditions.
Waterproof your nonelectric firing systems.
Carry the claymore in the rucksack so it is immediately accessible and so that after breaking contact, it can be quickly armed and emplaced on the back trail (even while it is still in the ruck) to delay pursuers.
When placing claymores around your position (OP, ambush, RON, etc.), they should be emplaced one at a time by two men: one man emplacing the mine and the other standing guard.
Never emplace a claymore in a position that prevents you from having visual contact with it.
Because you only emplace a claymore where you can observe it, you may consider cutting your firing wire in half since you will not use more than 50 feet/5 meters of wire, easing emplacement and recovery and cutting weight.
Emplace each claymore so the blast parallels the team, and the firing wire does not lead straight back to the team position from the mine. If the claymores are turned around by the enemy, they will not point at the team.
Determine in advance who will fire each claymore and who will give the command or signal to fire.
Shaped Charge History, Charles Edward Munroe, discovered "The Monroe Effect" in explosives in 1885. He noted that explosives with a cavity facing a target left an indentation. The earliest known reference to the effect appears to be 1792, and there is indications mining engineers may have exploited the phenomenon over 150 years ago. The Monroe Effect was rediscovered by Von Neumann in 1911, but no practical applications were developed. In early 1997, Lawrence Livermore successfully tested a shaped charge that penetrated 3.4 meters of high-strength armor steel. The largest diameter shaped charge ever built produced a jet of molybdenum that traveled several meters through the air before making its way through successive blocks of steel. A Monroe-effect shaped-charge warhead can be expected to penetrate armor equal to 150-250% of the warhead diameter. Do to the “cutting” efficiency of a shaped charge (several times greater than that of bulk charges) there is a reduction in the amount of explosives needed.
(EFP) Explosively, Formed/Forged, Projectile/Penetrating/Penetrator Warhead. Note also self forging etc. A shaped charge is a concave metal hemisphere or cone (known as a liner) backed by explosives positioned between the liner and a steel or aluminum casing. A detonator is activated to initiate the explosives generating a detonation wave which collapses the liner and a high velocity metallic jet along with a slow moving slug are simultaneously formed. The jet properties depend on a range of alternative designs such as the energy released (size and type of explosives used). Or modifying the angle of the liner or varying its thickness, mass and composition, would result in a faster and longer metal jet within the void. The jets tip may travel as fast as 10 kilometers per second. Or (24,000-27,000 fps)
Shaped charge phenomenon; is beyond the scale of normal physics, which explains why its fundamental theoretical mechanism is not fully understood. The jet tip reaches 10 kms-l some 40 µs after detonation, giving a cone tip acceleration of about 25 million g. At this acceleration the tip would reach the speed of light, were this possible, in around 1.5 seconds. But of course, it reaches a terminal velocity after only 40 microseconds. The jet tail has a velocity of 2-5 kms-l so the jet stretches out to a length of about 8 cone diameters (CDs) before particulation occurs. The stretching occurs at a high strain rate, requiring the cone material to have excellent dynamic ductility at temperatures up to about 450°C. On reaching a target, the pressure developed between the jet tip and the forming crater can be as high as 10 Mbar (10 million atmospheres), several times the highest pressure predicted in the Earth's core. It is universally agreed that conical liner collapse and target penetration both occur by hydrodynamic flow. However, it has been established by X-ray diffraction that the jet is solid metal and not molten. Additionally, best estimates of jet temperature by incandescence color suggest a mean value of about 450°C, and copper melts at 1083°C at atmospheric pressure. So the following conundrum is the first confusion: The jet appears to behave like a fluid, and yet it is known to be a solid. One recent theory that would help explain this is that the jet has a molten core but with a solid outer sheath. The hypervelocity hydrodynamic impact (unlike lower speed KE penetration) results in a mushroom head penetration, such that the hole diameter is larger than the penetrator diameter. The dynamic compressive yield stress of the target is exceeded by a factor of at least one thousand times, so that only the densities of the target and jet materials are important. Both materials flow as if they were fluids and the penetration event can be modeled quite accurately using the Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow to give the well known hydrodynamic penetration equation. Hydrodynamic penetration begins to appear when the strike velocity exceeds a critical value, typically about 1,150m/s for current penetrators against rolled homogenous armor (RHA) targets. Full hydrodynamic behavior does not occur until the strike velocity reaches several kilometers per second, such as occurs with shaped charge munitions. At strike velocities less than about 1,150m/s penetration of metal armor occurs mainly through the mechanism of plastic deformation. A typical penetrator achieves a strike velocity around 1,500m/s to 1,700m/s, depending on range, and therefore target effects generally exhibit both hydrodynamic behavior and plastic deformation. A common feature is the importance of a high strike velocity to exploit the hydrodynamic penetration mechanism, which, in turn, is further improved by the use of longer penetrators with higher densities relative to the target. Explosively Formed Projectile (EFP) Wide angle cones and other liner shapes such as plates do not jet, but give instead an explosively formed projectile or EFP. The projectile forms by dynamic plastic flow and has a velocity of 1-3 kms-l. Target penetration is much less than that of a jet, but the hole diameter is larger with more armor sprawling. The concept of using explosive energy to deform a metal plate into a penetrator at high velocities offers a unique method of employing kinetic energy without the use of a large gun. Very often there is also a retaining ring to position and hold the liner-explosive in place. After detonation, the explosive creates enormous pressures that accelerate the liner while simultaneously reshaping it into a rod or some other desired shape. Several parameters in the warhead configuration must be redesigned to achieve an optimum configuration. EFPs can defeat the target at very long range. The projectile must be aerodynamically stable so as to strike the target within a small area and a small angle of obliquity. In the U.S., extensive work has focused on forming EFPs with canted fins, to induce spin-up. Current anti-armor ordnance employ explosively formed elongated penetrators. Such penetrators are generally one of two types: rearward folding or forward folding. In forward folding types a warhead containing an explosive charge drives the periphery of a metal plate, referred to as a liner, forward with an axial velocity greater than the axial velocity of the central portion causing the periphery to fold over and converge forward of the central portion and form an elongated penetrator. In rearward folding the explosive charge drives the periphery of the liner forward with an axial velocity less than the axial velocity of the central portion causing the periphery to fold over and converge rearward of the central portion to form the elongated penetrator. In these approaches, then, the axial velocity component is critical in determining the final desired shape of the penetrator and this is a well accepted technique. However, in certain applications, for example, where the explosively formed penetrator is delivered from the warhead assembly of a missile or projectile, the explosively formed penetrator encounters the skin of the missile or projectile during the critical earlier stages when the liner is being formed into the penetrator shape by the folding action of the periphery over the center. The engagement of the liner with the skin radically alters the axial velocities of the periphery thereby disrupting the folding and causes the penetrator to fragment losing its effectiveness. To avoid this, provision is made to remove the impeding portion of the skin using clearing charges or skin just prior to the liner folding action cutting devices.
In order to increase the penetrability, hollow charges differing from conventional hollow charges have also been developed in recent times. These charges can, for instance, comprise an auxiliary body disposed in front of or integrated with the metal cone of the charge so that upon initiation of the charge it generates a slug which follows behind the actual penetration jet and penetrates and enlarges the hole made by the penetration jet. Alternatively, the hollow charge may have a warhead with two complete hollow charges, so-called tandem hollow charges, which after the projectile is fired accompany each other as an integral unit during the greater part of the travel towards the target, only to separate at a predetermined distance from this and to continue towards the target at mutually slightly different velocities and hit with a sufficient interval of time to enable the charge which reaches the target first to detonate the explosive in any active armor so the latter charge penetration jet is able to work without disturbance and also is assisted by the penetration work already performed by the first charge. It has been observed that only a relatively small surface area is damaged when the impact is at an oblique angle. This strongly reduces cross section of the penetrating channel compared to the cross section of such a channel when a perpendicular impact occurs.
Copper cone - the jet makes holes, typically through 75mm (3 in) of mild steel or greater thicknesses of concrete or brickwork. It may be used for causing the detonation or deflagration of steel-cased ammunition without any risk of inadvertent disturbance of the target before firing. The usual explosive load is between 20 and 50g. EFP - A wide angled copper cone, essentially a slightly domed disc, generates an (EFP) which may be used to penetrate targets at greater ranges than the jet-forming cone. This enables the VULCAN to be used to disarm and disruptor devices. It punctures 10mm steel at a range of at least 1,500mm.
Aluminum cone- is able to deliver a powerful blow to shell. Dose not burn as fast.
Magnesium incendiary cone- The jet is less penetrating than that by copper but it is a less powerful initiator of detonation. It is used to penetrate even thick-walled shells or bombs and ignite the explosive or pyrotechnic filling. (Note IMO could it be that pyrotechnic is less explosive thus needs more powerful initiator). In this application it is much less likely to cause inadvertent high order detonation than other, more conventional, charges. It thus provides a reliable means of bringing about a “low order” deflagration event. The usual explosive load for this purpose is between 30 and 40g.
Water filled cavities- water is placed into a balloon then into the cavity. Able to penetrate steel-cased munitions with thicknesses of up to 10mm, and to disperse their contents with minimal risk of detonation.
A sophisticated heavy two-stage shaped-charge warhead is capable of piercing equivalent to 900mm of armor. A triple-shaped charge warhead offers 50mm more penetration. Even a small 440 gram shaped-charge explosive can penetrates more than 14 inches (35.6 cm) of armor. The M77 submunition's anti materiel capability is provided through a shaped charge with a built-in standoff, which can penetrate up to four inches of armor. The smaller submissions have a shaped charge warhead that penetrates 2.75 inches of homogeneous armor.
The Pentagon has formed a task force the Joint IED defeat organization (JIEDDO) its more than 500 members include red teams, who try to think like insurgents. Spent 5 billon $ in last three years and has a 4 billon $ budget this year. Navy EOD, China lake training base. Navy EOD 1800 members 15 mobile units. EOD team number 7 troops. Motto Initial Success or total failure. EOD term, 9 line an IED location report i.e. situation briefing. Three years ago practically every IED incident created some kind of casualty. Now the enemy must create six incidents to create a casualty of some variety. Note the last statement I believe was made in 2007. The insurgency did not start for about three mouths after the invasion and did not get into full swing for at least a year. So my Question is, how dose that statement mesh with these facts. 70% casualties in Iraq by IED in 2005. IED account for roughly 80% of US deaths up from 50% at the start of the year. 06/25/07. Maybe CNN has not reported the grate increase in total IEDs in Iraq. That would explain the casualty figures under such improved odds.
Iraqi munitions destroyed by coal forces 400 tons vs. estimated total in nation of 3.5 million tons located at thousands of sites, 2007. 400 car bombs c-span at mid 2006.
IEDs can’t be defeated by gadgetry. We have to go and find and kill the guys making them.
EOD -8 bomb system 70 lbs includes cooling system plugs into cigarette lighter for recharge. Talon Robot, Big brother to PAC bot. RPV is capable of operating under water. Mic-Lic Explosive line charge that can be shot out over mine fields etc. Dragon burn Vs blow pyrotecnique, blow torch anti mine system (like VULCAN system mentioned above with different cone materials) 2k degrees Celsius. Lite wt. non explosive anyone can operate it. No high order explosion from mine. Also the buffalo, counter IED vehicle and the Meerkat nine detector. Cougar V a 6x truck bottom hull 30 lbs TNT resistant. 2k attacks in Iraq no casualties. (Note again back to the figures).
Lonatron of Tucson Ariz. MFG of remote control vehicle, with a speed of 35 mph. Used high voltage surge of electricity similar to a lighting bolt to disable explosives at range of 1k yards. Note must use wire. Called JIN joint IED neutralizer. Number of units in Iraq 12. Alliant tech system of Edina Minnesota developing AF scorpion 11, demonstration system uses high power micro waves. Effective 75% of the time. JIN (?)% .
Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) AN/GLQ-16 AN/VLQ-9 AN/VLQ-10 AN/VLQ-11 AN/PLQ-7 Shortstop The Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) is a portable radio frequency jammer. The SEPS could be programmed to jam a specific range of frequencies. SEPS were also placed at VCPs in order to defeat any remotely controlled VBIED or suicide bomber wearing explosives. The Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) is an RF Proximity Fuse counter measure. The Shortstop battlefield electronic countermeasures system is capable of prematurely detonating incoming artillery and mortar rounds weapons with impact fuses slip through. The system could reduce casualties to ground troops by as much as 50 percent during the initial stages of an enemy attack. The AN/VLQ -9 or -10, systems demonstrated, in testing, the ability to significantly enhance survivability of troops and high value assets from indirect fire, proximity fused munitions. The prototypes were deployed for a limited period of time in Bosnia and were returned to contingency stock in 1997. Packaged in a suitcase-size case and fitted with a small multi-directional antenna, the Shortstop system can be activated and operational within seconds. Shortstop's passive electronics and operational features make it impervious to detection by enemy signal-intelligence sensors. In the near future, Shortstop will shrink in size, down to 25 pounds. Whittaker is currently under contract to build three new, smaller versions: portable and vehicle units, as well as a stand-alone unit. Warlock Green / Warlock Red The Warlock Force Protection System is a lifesaving countermeasure. Warlock has been effective in countering the threat of IED. The Warlock devices are modified versions of EDO's battle-proven "Shortstop" electronic protection system. Warlock Green emits a radio frequency to jam communications signals that detonate improvised explosive devices. EDO also manufactures a less sophisticated jammer called Warlock Red. Originally designed to defeat proximity fused indirect fire munitions, Warlock has a dual capability to deny the use of enemy modern communication devices. Warlock can be used individually or in groups to provide wide area coverage without mutual interference. The systems have three configurations—man-pack, vehicle mounted, and stand-alone.
Warlock Red is a low-cost jammer to counter specific threats that have been emerging in increasing numbers. Warlock Green is a more capable jammer used to address more sophisticated threat systems.

Mines present in 60 nations mostly Afghanistan, Angola, Mozambique, Eritrea, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Iraq, Somalia, Sudan, former Yugoslavia FRY Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Africa has the most of any continent. 20 million exist in the world, 2k WIA each mouth. 800 KIA out of WIA 250 k amputees. Mine manufacturing nations China, CIS, India, Pakistan, Italy, South Africa, FRY, CARS, Federal Republic of Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, US MAC mine action center facility asset in demining and survival assist efforts within nation. WW 2 CIS/USSR deployed 222 million. WW 2, 2k mines per tank lost. In Nam AKA destructors or garbage do to large numbers used. With 300 k used mostly in river 11k in Haiphong.
Probing with knife, it is placed in open hand secured gently with thumb only. Use 30 degree angle at 2”points, across 1 meter front. If you detect something remove dirt with hand. Always mark suspicious points.
Biological detection, insects like honey bees used. Tiny quantities of TNT linger in the air traces collect on bees and pollen. Hives are monitored to detect presents. Bacteriological detection genetically engineered micro organisms would recognize explosive compound. It is sprayed on ground or area of suspicion. If traces present produces light or fluorescent sign. Environmental cons weather. AKA purple grass changes color with presents of chemical. IMO could be used also to make enemy think area mind. Dogs tier quickly and windy days are bad.
There are 429 airports in US. Plans call for 70-80 explosive Detection machines to be installed at IAPs.
The grenade was live and had its pin pulled, but did not explode because a handkerchief wrapped tightly around the grenade kept the firing pin from deploying quickly enough.
APPENDIX DEF. rule # 5
Over all visual tips;
In mountains points of observation can be at great distances. Height or altitude is a real plus in the desert even vehicle height can help a great deal. Crewmen well stand on the very edge of the tanks gun barrel to see over the horizon. In the dessert sometimes you can see better at night than at mid day.
Mirages are optical phenomena that occur due to the refraction of light though heated air, rising from a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 6 miles from the coast. Mirages distort more in the vertical dimension and are more common when facing the sun. They make objects that are 1 mile or more away appear to move. They also blur distant range contours, so much that you feel as if you are surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as islands. 10’/feet of elevation above surface puts you above superheated air close to surface over coming mirage effects. Note 18 inches to three feet above surface aka the sniper zone. Objects at equal height can be invisible to each other up to 2 km range. Mirages can reveal things over the horizon, although they may be distorted to point of non recognition. Much like Sky mapping in the extreme north i.e. sky reflection of land or water leads in ice or patches of snow are visible in clouds. Image approaches perfection as stratus clouds reach uniformity. Visibility from 500-1000 feet of altitude, maximum on very clear day 25 miles, hazy day 3-5 miles. Average horizon, 52’ per 1’ foot of Alt. Another words observers get one mile per 100’ of Altitude, 52/100 miles per 1 mile of Alt.
In astronomy, roughly circular line bounding an observer's view of the surface of the earth where the sky and earth seem to meet. This is the visible horizon. At sea the visible horizon is a perfect circle with the observer at its center, (it averages about 2 ½ miles) but on land it is irregular due to topographic features. The distance to the horizon varies as the square root of the observer's elevation for small elevations; at four times the height the distance to the horizon is twice as great.
(DOD) In general, the apparent or visible junction of the Earth and sky, as seen from any specific position. Also called the apparent, visible, or local horizon. A horizontal plane passing through a point of vision or perspective center. The apparent or visible horizon approximates the true horizon only when the point of vision is very close to sea level.
Operating at night, there are 12 nights out of the year of complete darkness according to calendar. Add in weather in some areas of the world like Europe and it could be as many as one hundred. Your eyes may seem to play tricks on you at night. You cannot distinguish one color from another. Your depth perception is reduced.
Moon shadows - With moon angles of 23 to 60 degrees and illumination levels of 30 % or greater, coupled with the moon positioned to the front or side of the aircraft (approximately 9 o’clock-3 o’clock position), crews could pick up shadows and use the contrast for terrain definition. However, with the moon to the rear quadrants (4 o’clock-8 o’clock position), the moon shadows either could not be picked up or were difficult to see. This caused terrain blending, making it extremely difficult to discern increases/decreases in elevation sloping, small buttes, and hills.
Perception that light is moving a phenomenon called Autokenesis when you stair at light long enough in the dark it looks like its moving. The illusion of movement, which a static light exhibits when stared at in the dark, is related to the loss of surrounding visual references that normally serve to stabilize visual perceptions. Consequently, naturally occurring small eye movements are perceived by the brain as movement of the light. Under such conditions, the best thing to do is to begin a scan pattern to control the eye movement and thus control illusions. Try to find another light and shift your gaze back and forth between the lights.
Electromagnetic (Light) Spectrum is simply energy (light). Within this spectrum of energy or light you can find x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, cosmic rays, and ultra violet rays and infra red to name a few. Note list all in order.
The principal effect of IR is heat, the principal effect of Ultraviolet is chemical reactions. Also within the spectrum is visible light i.e. what we can see with the naked eye. Just beyond red visible light is IR light which is broken down into 3 different ranges: near IR, middle IR, and far IR. This is important to understand why some devices cannot be used in conjunction with others.
NVDs
Absorption during the day all inanimate objects absorb thermal energy from the sun to varying degrees. Metal objects have a much higher rate of absorption than wood, leaves, or grass; therefore, a metal object sitting in the sun will stand out more than the grass surrounding it.
Exposure the amount of time an object is exposed to thermal energy determines how well that object will be seen. Naturally, an object with a long exposure time will have absorbed more thermal energy than an object exposed to the same thermal energy for a shorter period of time.
Emissivity is the rate at which an object emits the thermal energy it has absorbed or generates. Usually, most objects that have a high absorption rate will have a high emissivity factor. Although the human body does not have a high absorption rate, it does have a high emissivity factor due to the fact that it generates a high amount of thermal energy.
Reflection items such as glass and water have virtually no absorption rate. Instead they reflect the thermal energy, which makes it very difficult to see objects through glass and water. Snow and ice have the same effect, especially during the day with no clouds present. The snow or ice reflect most of the thermal energy from the sun, so it will be difficult to acquire a good thermal image on objects that are on snow or ice and behind glass.
Thermo / Infrared vs. Light amplification / Night vision, There is a difference between the two. Often the media uses the terms interchangeably as if they were the same. Thermo vision is nothing more than a fancy I.R. which senses heat.
The TWS operates within the middle/far IR range. It is able to detect IR light emitted from friction, combustion, or from objects that are radiating natural thermal energy. Since the TWS and other thermal devices operate within the middle/far IR range they cannot be used in conjunction with image intensifiers or other I/2 devices at this time.
Lt. Amp. aka Image Intensifiers (I/2) Devices; I/2 devices include the AN/PVS-4, PVS-5, PVS-7A/B/C/D, and PVS-14s. As the name implies, image intensification devices are designed to amplify light. To be effective, some degree of ambient light or energy within the near IR range emitted from natural and artificial light sources most be available. When light enters the image intensifier tube, the light releases electrons, which the tube accelerates repeatedly until the light is much brighter. Under optimum conditions, 2nd generation devices, such as the PVS-5-series, intensifies ambient light up to about 1,500 times. Third-generation devices, such as the PVS-7/14-series NODS, doubles that level of intensification. Modern equipment magnifies ambient light millions of times.
NVG looking across a body of water such as a stream or lake increases the capabilities of the scope. Snow is made of reflective ice particles Starlight is reflected off of the snow making it easier to see at night. Thermo/IR has greater range, can detect farther out. Can detect temperature differences on surfaces, to show where someone has been lying. With IR use barriers that you do not lean on. Or to place your body on for support to reduce residue signatures.
Light amplification/ NVG standard set up, human recognized at 500 m. small vehicles 1km. NVG gives you more detail for I.D. of image. Can detect disturbances on the surface better i.e. tracks in dirt. MOUT dust particles in air with Marines using light Amp. could show air currents especially inside rooms and indicate movement or drafts caused by an opened door. NVG/Lt amp.? the green fire of phosphorescence churned up in the wake of a ship. Ground shimmering with NVG. NVG term blobs. Human eye can detect more shades of green, this is why green is used for viewing monitors. Land warrior two inch eye peace, view equals 17” screen. Lt. Amp. makes it difficult to maintain normal night vision. Passive Light amplification equipment in MOUT is of no use in sewers, tunnels, or basements, where no natural light exists.
Rifle scopes with NVG capabilities are combined with laser targeting designators a little IR/laser beam that lights up the spot bullet will hit, dot only visible with IR/NVG. Devices that emit in near IR energy in a colliminated /calumniated? beam, which are used as aiming devices such as the AN/PAQ-4B/C and the AN/PEQ-2A. Since both the image intensifiers and aiming lasers work within the same range of near IR energy they are able to work in conjunction with each other. Marines engaging as team see all other Marine’s dots.
Aiming Lasers AN/PAQ-4-series and the AN/PEQ-2A, operate within the near IR range, and are seen through image intensification devices. The aiming lasers emit a highly colliminated beam of IR energy that allows for quick "point and shoot" capability at night. The aiming lasers cannot be seen with the unaided eye. Special attention must be given to the following:
10-Meter Boresight/25-Meter Zero. As aiming lights were being introduced to units, increasing attention was given to the difficulty in zeroing them to weapons. The basic problem with traditional 25-meter zeroing is that the beam of an aiming light "blooms" when viewed through NVGs. Because this "bloom" covers up the silhouette in the center of the 25-meter target, a precise point of aim is almost impossible to achieve when zeroing.
One solution to the 25-meter zeroing problem was the bore light. It allows zeroing without the use of ammunition. A 25-meter zeroing allows the round to hit somewhere within a 19-inch circle at a 300-meter target, not center mass of the target. With the bore light, the strike of the round will impact a target at 300 meters very close to center mass. The other advantage to the use of the bore light is that a 25-meter zero is no longer necessary with aiming lights; if the bore sighting procedures are done correctly, you will be able to engage targets out to 300 meters, dependant upon ambient light conditions.
If a 25-meter zeroing is to be conducted, modifications to the M16A2 zero target must take place. A 3-centimeter circle is cut out of the center of the 300-meter zeroing silhouette. As you align the laser with the 3-centimeter cutout, the bloom will disappear ensuring that your point of aim is center mass of the 300-meter zero silhouette.
Note multiple layers with 3cm wholes counters bloom and what else?
Laser invisible to eye, but you can feel the heat. Cons, with NVG no peripheral vision you feel cocooned, false sense of security. Also NVG/IR? Pipes looking like ditch. Or bottles (plastic/glass?) like artillery shells. Hour just before sunset to bright to use NVG to dark for eyes. High moon illumination - With moon illumination levels at 85-100 % the NVGs had a tendency to “white out;” that is, shut down due to the brightness. Lasers, lights, flares, explosions and muzzle flashes hamper both, can cause them to shut off.
In MOUT the many reflections form shinny surfaces can cause false images and hamper laser range finder and designators as well. Gloss paint reflects more with light Amp. Lighter Vs darker shades? Flat paints less, but more heat signature on IR. Once you start shooting inside buildings smoke dose become sensor problem for IR or LT. AMP. Using body system, this is having one Marine equipped with Lt. Amp. equipment, one not or one with Lt. Amp. and one with I.R. and a third party with neither. So you can complement each others unique capabilities. The point man wears a PVS-5/7 NVG and the slack (the man behind the point) uses a TIS. When two persons using NVGs in the passive mode look directly at each other, they will see glowing “cat-eyes” caused by retro-reflectivity.
You can use I.R. in the day light to see through smoke. Vision enhancement equipment can be used in day light hrs to reduce mirage effects. Cameras, I.R. Lt. Amp., are two dimensional. Also have limited fields of view. However Lasers and radar are three dimensional. Meaning they indicate depth. Light amplification and IR equipment reverse function switch, black and white in wt/hot or dark/hot and iron color, or false color too. Negative image, views etc. to counter deep shadows or marginal areas of vegetation. Temperature differences between shadows and sun lighted areas in mountains can be as great as 10 degrees. You can stay on edges. Some desert winter days like MTN warm in open area chilly in shade.
The thermal views are also occasionally hindered by a naturally occurring phenomena (radiation cooling) (clear nights) where the temperature of the earth heats or cools rapidly at sunset or sunrise and may interfere with the recognition and lock-on of the intended target. This involves the point at which objects either have taken on all the energy they can or have lost all the energy they had and the time before they start to radiate or absorb it again. Diurnal Cycle there are two times during the day when motionless objects (note IMO windy condition could also play a part) that do not generate their own thermal energy, such as trees, rocks, and man-made objects, become the same temperature as the surrounding air. This is known as the diurnal cycle. These times usually occur once in the morning and once in the evening. The specific times that this cycle will take effect is based on the time of the year, but it usually occurs shortly after sunrise and shortly after sunset. These two times during the day can be referred to as "crossover points." During the day, a motionless object will absorb thermal energy from the sun; the crossover point is the time when that object stops absorbing thermal energy and starts radiating thermal energy (night). As the night goes on, that same object will come to a point where it stops radiating thermal energy and will once again start absorbing thermal energy (day). During the diurnal cycle objects can be difficult to see.
Note could also have to do with dry low humidity mornings sun radiation heating objects quicker, also consider coupling with sane red sky in morning sailor takes warning etc.
What about conveyor belt surface (scrolls) that would renew a optimum type surface martial.
Note statement by Sgt. Michael “lucky” Locket; I scanned the area with IR but with all the Artillery shell, grenade, rockets, shrapnel, casings, fires, smoke, dust, rifles glowing, muzzle flashes.
Note for information on range see COE rule # 11.
Marines in groups with deep heat on them in patches, would this not look like shrapnel of bomb on the ground also MRE chem. heat units or winter hand warmers etc? Note cold blooded animal’s insect’s etc signature with I.R. sensors? C-4 Temp. 3k deg., Jet fuel 1800 deg., kitchen controlled burn (blue in color) 1300-1800 deg. Open flame uncontrolled burn (yellow or orange in color) 500 deg. Open flames at altitude different color. Temperature too
Adjustments rain, snow, fog, smoke, and the diurnal cycle are just a few environmental conditions that affect your thermal image. The TWS is equipped with a diopter focus ring, an objective focus ring, brightness knob, auto and manual contrast, and polarity switch that will allow you to maximize the capability of the sight.
Making the proper adjustments to your image intensification (I/2) devices is crucial to your ability to acquire and engage a target at night. Under optimum night conditions a Marine with 20/20 vision during daylight can expect no better than 20/50 with 2nd generation NVGs and 20/40 with 3rd generation. Marines with good adjustments (20/35 to 20/50) the same Marine with poor settings (20/60 to 20/70). With good settings Marines had a hit probability at 75 meters of 76 %; with poor settings hit probability at 75 meters dropped to 47 %.
NOTE: If the mounting bracket is permanently attached to the helmet, ensure that the nape strap rear bracket is also permanently attached (See TM 11-5855-306-10, AN/PVS-14). The use of the nape strap will prevent the weight of the NODs from pulling the helmet downward causing the NODs to rest on the bridge of your nose. The nape strap will allow for proper acuity/setting of the sight and will allow you to engage targets with more ease and accuracy.
Set eye-relief. Move the goggles so that the eyecups cover the eye but not so close that the eyepiece touches your eyelashes or glasses.
Set inner-pupillary distance (AN/PVS-7 series). Move each eyepiece until they are centered over each eye. Close one eye and make adjustments until the eye that is open is viewing a complete circle and not an oval. Continue to make adjustments to the other eye.
Adjust the diopter ring. When first making adjustments to the sight, start with the diopter focus ring i.e. adjust the diopter ring before adjusting the objective focus ring. The diopter focus ring will focus the display screen (raster) i.e. lens to your eye. This is best done with the objective lens cover closed. Simply adjust the diopter focus ring until everything on the display screen is clear and easily read. Close one eye and with the eye that is open take the diopter ring and turn in one direction until the diopter is totally out of focus. Then turn the diopter ring back the opposite direction until the display is focused to your eye. Follow the same procedures for the other eye if using the AN/PVS-7 series. No further adjustment to the diopter adjustment ring should have to be made. Note now you’re ready to adjust the objective lens focus ring to focus on the target. You cannot focus the sight to the target without your eye being focused to the display first.
Objective focus ring will focus the sight to the target. While looking at an object, turn the ring until the objective lens is out of focus and then slowly turn the ring in the opposite direction until the object becomes clear. Adjustments will have to be made for targets at different ranges i.e. adjustments to the objective focus ring will be based on the range of the object being viewed.
Variable gain control (AN/PVS-14 only) the AN/PVS-14 has a variable gain control that controls the illumination input to the eye. Keeping the variable gain turned up will cause your brain to form two separate images, one darker and one very bright. With the variable gain turned down to the point that both eyes are almost receiving the same amount of light, the brain will produce one image making it seem like both eyes are looking through the same sight.
Brightness is a dual-function knob that turns on the TWS and adjusts the brightness of the raster, and is used to refine the thermal image. Used in conjunction with the contrast knob, it helps combat the effects of the diurnal cycle, and other conditions that might require fine-tuned adjustment to the thermal image.
Contrast the contrast is a dual-function switch with an auto contrast and manual contrast mode. The auto contrast is used under normal operating conditions. The manual contrast is used under conditions other than normal such as during 10-meter bore sighting during 25-meter zeroing; during rain, fog, smoke, or snow; during the diurnal cycle; or when trying to obtain as much detail of a target as possible. Used in conjunction with the brightness knob, the contrast allows you to obtain the best possible thermal image.
Polarity the polarity switch allows you to select between white-hot or black-hot. When in white-hot mode, the hotter objects will appear white while cooler objects will have shades of gray to black. When using black-hot, the hotter objects will be black while the cooler objects will be shades of gray to white.
NVG also to contrast with back ground, sheets of light shining through rooms, caused by opened doors, windows or cracks? With IR to see liquids in tanks, the surface is hotter than liquids. Finely to improve viewing of monitors during day time hours. Note, Light shades turn dark, Vs. Note reverses of three prime colors Red, Green, Blue. Black light compensation switch mentioned in IR specs sheet? Ultra violet light reveals urine. With video could it switch from normal image to negative how could it be used? Focal point with digital sensors back grounds etc.??
Scanning NVDs have a 40-degree field of view leaving the average shooter to miss targets at 50-meter left or right. You must train to aggressively scan your sector of fire. Regular blinking during scanning relieves some of the eyestrain from trying to spot far targets. You will find that targets are easier to detect by acknowledging the flicker or movement of a target.
Field of View (FOV) the TWS has two operating FOVs-wide and narrow. The wide field of view (WFOV) has the least magnification, and is used for scanning. The (NFOV) has greater magnification. NOTE: When selecting a FOV, make sure that the FOV ring is turned completely to the left or to the right. If the FOV ring is turned only halfway, you will not be able to see through the sight. Also NOTE: Over-adjustment to the objective focus ring will lock the FOV ring to the point that the FOV cannot be changed.
Walking once a target has been located, you must be aware of the placement of the aiming laser. If you activate your laser and it is pointing over the target into the sky, you will waste valuable time trying to locate exactly where your laser is pointing. Also, it increases your chances of being detected and fired upon by the enemy. When engaging a target, aim the laser at the ground just in front of the target, walk the laser along the ground and up the target.
IR Discipline once a target has been located and engaged with the aiming laser, the laser must be deactivated.
Thermal Weapon Sight TWS is able to convert thermal energy that is reflected, radiated, or generated from an object. It is able to absorb all available light into the lens, and then filters out all light except for middle/far IR (thermal light). The TWS then converts the thermal light into an image and creates a video that is displayed on the raster for viewing.
Head cams give troops eyes in the back of their head.
Hummers at range of 1 km difficult to see, at 2km they can be just about unnoticeable these figures pertain to shrub country.
Guidelines for Drawing Sketches the following are guidelines when drawing sketches: Work from the whole to the part. First determine the boundaries of the sketch. Then sketch the larger objects such as hills, mountains, or outlines of large buildings. After drawing the large objects, start drawing the smaller details. Use common shapes to show common objects. Do not sketch each individual tree, hedgerow, or wood line exactly. Use common shapes to show these types of objects. Do not concentrate on the fine details unless they are of tactical importance. Draw in perspective; use vanishing points. To do this, recognize the vanishing points of the area. Parallel lines on the ground that are horizontal vanish at a point on the horizon. Parallel lines on the ground that slope downward away from the observer vanish at a point below the horizon. Parallel lines on the ground that slope upward, away from the observer vanish at a point above the horizon. Parallel lines that recede to the right vanish on the right and those that recede to the left vanish on the left (Figure 4-24).

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THE END
APPENDIX DEF. rule # 7
Radios Urk-ten (An/urc-10) survival radio, transmitted and received on 243.0 megacycles known as guard channel (UHF)
When it is necessary to give long detailed instructions, such as guiding someone flying a helicopter, the instructor should release the button on his mike every few seconds in case the person receiving the info needs to talk.
Vietnam era USAF called it (243.0) Navy common and USN called it USAF common.
FM to talk to boots on the ground
SNS [social network sites] creates a larger attack and exploitation window, exposes unnecessary information to adversaries and provides an easy conduit for information leakage that puts OPSEC [operational security], COMSEC [communications security]
The length of time between the moment you shout and the moment that you hear the echo is determined by the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo.
Moving your hand side to side at a slow pace, creates longer waves, i.e. low frequency.
Faster movement from side to side, makes waves shorter but more frequent, generating a higher frequency. Lower frequencies travel farther, but are more subject to high latency that limits data flow. A higher frequency has a lower (better) latency, but it is limited in distance and penetration of objects such as buildings.
For example, your local FM radio station. If broadcasting on 103.5MHz, i.e.103,500,000 cps. The signal is heard all over your city, inside buildings with little interruption. Meanwhile, an AM station two states away is broadcasting on 1320 KHz, i.e. 1,320,000 cps. With the correct antenna placed outside, you can receive the signal with the added difficulty of needing to adjust your antenna.
As you can see, antennas are fundamental components to the transmission of radio frequencies. In many situations, a lower power signal transmitted using a good antenna can arrive at its destination with more accuracy than a high-powered signal transmitted using a poor antenna. Antennas are rated by the amount of gain (the increase in power you get by using a directional antenna) that they provide.
SP March 13, 2009: For five years, the U.S.M.C. has been using its own battlefield Internet, based on off-the-shelf equipment. Late last year, the U.S. Army tried out the marine approach, and found that it worked.
This all began when the marines went to war in Iraq in 2003. There they quickly discovered that their radio equipment was not up to the needs of fast moving mechanized warfare. That's understandable, as Iraq was the first time the marines ever had to advance so quickly, and so far inland, during combat. Taking this as the wave of the future, and lacking the money for a lot of expensive new communications gear, the marines came up with CONDOR (Command and Control on the Move Network, Digital Over the Horizon Relay). Basically, CONDOR equips each marine battalion with satellite telephone and encrypted wi-fi gear, as well as networking hardware for all sorts of marine radios. The satellite link means that no battalion is ever out of range of radio or Internet communication. Most marine radios are "line of sight" (FM) and are of limited range. When units spread out too far, they lose radio contact unless they have satellite phones. The marines got satellite phones and satellite based communications gear from the army during the Iraq campaign. This proved a lifesaver.
But CONDOR went one step further by establishing wi-fi nodes throughout the battalion area, and also collects and transmits data from the EPLRS (locator transmitters) that every vehicle carries. The problem with EPLRS was that it used a line of sight signal (unlike the army Blue Force Tracker, which used satellite communications). CONDOR transmits EPLRS data to all marine units in the area, thus allowing a division commander to see where all his vehicles and troops are, even if they are hundreds of kilometers apart. CONDOR also allows any radio in the battalion to use the satellite link to call anywhere in the worldwide marine communications network.
But what really got the army's attention was how CONDOR provided Internet connections for everyone in the battalion. EPLRS has Internet capability built into it, but troops don't always turn it on. During last years army test, the EPLRS Internet feature was heavily used, along with troposcatter radio (signals are sent straight up, and they bounce off the troposphere back to other radios) to connect EPLRS units that are not within line-of-sight of each other. As the marines discovered, this works quite well.
Everyone was happy, except the contractors and bureaucrats trying to get the JTRS radio system to work. Since the 1990s, this distance and communications problem, as well as the need for battlefield Internet, had been foreseen. A new family of radios (JTRS) were developed to deal with it. But JTRS underwent one delay after another, and won't be available for another year or two (a phrase that has been overused with regard to JTRS). So EPLRA can fill in until JTRS arrives. CONDOR and EPLRS are more examples of how new technology is being developed so quickly that the usual Department of Defense way of developing new gear is often overtaken by faster evolving civilian equipment. No one expected satellite phones and wi-fi to come to market as quickly as they did. But here they are, and they will fill in until the official solution, JTRS, catches up.
ESM Electronic support measures: Types of missions are maintenance, also to warn of and I.D. possible threats. Gather information by monitoring, and analyzing signals. Signals of deferent systems I.D. by frequency pulse width, repetition rate and aerial rotation rate. Equipment consists of scanners, bugs, radios, phones, microphones.
SP Sept 1999 The US Army has begun issuing the new Soldier Intercom System to elite light infantry units and will eventually outfit all infantry and many other units with it. The system consists of a small radio carried in a pouch on the soldier's web gear, and a headset (earphone and microphone) worn inside the helmet. Each squad of 8-10 men is given their own frequency.
SP; MSP or military smart phones what the army is looking for is a smart phone that can work off battlefield wi-fi and have sufficient encryption and ruggedness to survive enemy efforts, and general rough use, to shut it down.
Senior NCOs can much more easily poll troops by texting them to get current status of things like ammo, sleep, food or health. So the MSP would simply plug into the helmet headset. The army also has to deal with troops demand for iPod features (the most widespread "handheld computer"). The MSP would also be able to take stills and videos, and the troops like to carry favorite vids with them. Combining business and pleasure is not encouraged in the military, but the MSP will be a very personal piece of gear. It might even be able to use civilian cell networks as well, meaning that every troop will be issued one. The army might also pick an MSP operating system, like Linux, that would make it easier for the troops to more easily write software. Then again, maybe not, given some of the dodgy stuff that has already been written for existing smart phones. In any event, the army knows they are entering new territory here. But they have to do it, before someone, somewhere else, beats them to it.
Internet search engine surfer is identified by number but surfers usually searches for information on themselves. You go on line for information; you are welcomed as source of information. This is why AOL switched form subscriber base income to a free network system.
SP mail call internet shopping is big and a single mailing address here in the US is used. In 2006, the Department of Defense shipped 112,000 tons overseas. In 2007, that was up to 139,000 tons. This year, it's headed for a total of 180,000 tons. It costs the Department of Defense over half a billion dollars a year to move this stuff.
SP information warfare; title waiting for cybergeddon. First, there are three kinds of Cyber War possible. Right now, we have limited stealth operations (LSO), as Chinese, Russian, and others, use Cyber War techniques to support espionage efforts. China is the biggest practitioner, or at least they have been caught most often.
Next comes Cyber War only (CWO). This is open use of a full range of Cyber War weapons. No one has done this yet, but it's potentially less dangerous than firing missiles and unleashing tank divisions. It is believed that Russia indulged in this in 2007, when Estonia infuriated the Russians by moving a World War II statute memorializing the Soviet "liberation" of Estonia (which didn't want to be liberated by the Soviet Union.) Russia denied responsibility for the massive Cyber War assaults on Estonia, which nearly shut down the nations Internet infrastructure. Estonia accused Russia of being responsible, and tried to invoke the NATO mutual-defense pact. NATO Cyber War experts went to Estonia, and shortly thereafter the attacks stopped. Apparently Russia got the message that this sort of thing could escalate in something more conventional, and deadly.
Then we have Cyber War in support of a conventional war. Technically, we have had this sort of thing for decades. It has been called "electronic warfare" and has been around since World War II. But the development of the Internet into a major part of the planets commercial infrastructure, takes "electronic warfare" to a whole other level. Cyber War goes after strategic targets, not just the electronic weapons and communications of the combat forces.
A successful Cyber War depends on two things; means and vulnerability. The "means" are the people, tools and cyberweapons available to the attacker. The vulnerability is the extent to which the enemy economy and military use the Internet and networks in general. We don't know who has what Cyber War capabilities exactly, although China and the U.S. have openly organized Cyber War units, and both nations have lots of skilled Internet experts.
Vulnerability is another matter. The United States is the most exposed to Cyber War attack because, as a nation, we use the Internet more than any other country. That's the bad news. The good news is that if an attacker ever tried to launch a Cyber War by assaulting the U.S., it could backfire. This risk has to be kept in mind when considering what a Cyber War might do. Recall military history. The Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 actually backfired on the Japanese, by enraging Americans and unleashing a bloodthirsty response that left Japan in ruins. The lesson of the original Pearl Harbor is, if you're going to hit someone this way, better make it count. If your opponent is bigger than you, and gets back up, you could be in some serious trouble.
The big problem with Cyber War is that there has not been a lot of experience with it. Without that, no one is really sure what will happen when someone attempts to use it at maximum strength. But unlike nuclear weapons, there is far less inhibition about going all-out with Cyber War weapons. That is the biggest danger. Cyber War is a weapon of growing might, and little restraint by those who wield it. Things are going to get a lot worse.
Near space aka no mans land. It is fertile research area “it was surprising to us how many folks were out there”. The vertical dimensions 12 miles of altitude close to the internationally accepted upper limits of controlled air space, up to sixty-two miles altitude lower limits of space. Air to thin to support flight to thick for satellites to maintain orbit. Gravity also to strong. Pros- Compared to traditional space cost less money, there are fewer restrictions, R&D is reduced and technology is available off the shelf, over the counter. Systems come on line much faster. Low threat high pay off. Stealthy, above range of lots of threats. Twenty times closer to earth than LEO satellites, which have short window times. System more responsive and persistent than space assist. Terms persistent Vs. pervasive. Ex: Geo-stationary satellite persistent but not pervasive. Near space system unblinking for mouths/persistent, could be used for closer views/pervasive or as relay stations. Also to direct satellites as they come over horizon. Lighter than air vehicles, Dirigibles, balloons. Bio degradable vehicles and payloads. One con to system retrieval, note homing pigeon systems. 2001, 20 out of 60 predators lost most to pilot error or weather. Near space might have mirror to reflect ground or airborne lasers for harassment or kinetic damage of foe’s equipment in near space.
UAVs are controlled from remote locations via radio frequency (RF). Provide near or real time video of the battlefield transmitted to a controlling shelter and remote video terminals (RVT).
Primary missions; surveillance is either a close range within 50 - 200 kilometers or endurance category of anything beyond. reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA), in support of intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB), situation development, battle management, battle damage assessment (BDA), rear area security, and command and control (C2). Can perform missions, which are unsafe for manned aircraft. Supposition is that newer, stealthy versions may even be able to be used as strategic assets, dropped by aircraft near target country borders, sneak in at low or very high altitudes, take their pictures or gather intelligence, and then sneak back out to be recovered. Note nations would be less worried about being caught spying within target air space.
They should be used during the first critical days of a conflict. That is when air defenses are most numerous and aircrews’ inexperience in AOR. UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three “Ds”: Dull, Dirty, and Dangerous. Dull means long-endurance missions which, in the future, could mean for several days. Several autonomous UAVs have been fielded which can be given GPS-based and or INS-based navigational parameters and then are left to loiter and collect SIGINT, COMINT, photography, or real-time T.V. images. According to the tactical UAV concept of operations, it will fly 12 hours per day, with a surge capability of up to a maximum of 72 hours continuously. Manning being most critical factor. Surge operations come at a cost: the UAV is down for maintenance for 72 hours following the surge. Dirty means jobs, such as detecting chemical agents and their intensity. Dangerous missions are numerous two are deep reconnaissance and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD). Support combat search and rescue (CSAR). Adjust indirect fire and close air support (CAS).
UAV Employment over view;
B.S. term hot full missions.
Strike missions;
Recon;
Situation development;
Support IPB;
Communications relay;
Command and control;
Mine detection, NBC detection, laser designation/targeting and weather surveillance.
Rear security;
CSAR;
SEAD;
Weather Limitations;
Winds: Headwind of 35 knots, tailwind of 3 knots, and crosswind of 20 knots. Winds aloft of greater than 50 knots.
Lightning within 10 miles.
Ice.
Ceilings of 6,000 feet or less will prevent collection during mission?
MAV mini aerial vehicle, aka Dragon eye, max alt. 10560’. One con to system was the inability to fly below 100 feet. IMU inertial measurement unit allows it to hover, in 20 knot winds. Not audible above 100 meters. Color images, IR too. Stores up to 60 minutes of information. Monitor indefinitely when autonomous mode used unit can land behind enemy lines and act as ground sensor.
NANOS. DARPA wireless sensor network, project sensing and electronic systems, Wolf pack. Smart dust, self organizing etc. MEMS micro electro-mechanical sensor.
ECM Electronic counter measure. Missions, try to disrupt foe’s transmissions by jamming. Conduct bug sweeps, Infrared jamming modulated shutter device. Reflecting sun light onto antennas with mirror may disrupt or distort signal? Code breaking term frequency counts the number of times a letter accurse in the alphabet EX: (E) used x amount of times. Cops knowing who you’ve quit hanging with do to phone numbers you remove from call list.
ECCM Electronic counter, counter measures. Missions. Tries to ensure security of your own signals and Transmissions. Keeps tabs on enemies methods of countering your systems and comes up with a counter to them. Cooper wire mesh said to shatter signals when used in construction of buildings. Other materials? Note on construction of anti communication buildings steel and metal alloy etc wool as insulation. Should have false back ground machinery noises to keep building from being suspected or looking covert. Bug sweeps, when bug turned off it well not be picked up during sweep. Broadcasting your transmission just before or just off foe’s actual channel or station. Anyone toning in may not realize their not on the right station, because it’s so close on the dial. ECCM to ECM of transmitting just off actual station, mark the face of tuner and digital turners too. Poor signal- using bad station frequency etc. Foe will not expect or care to monitor. Dissimilar communication one talks by phone, reply message communicated by text, email etc. Radio vs. phone anti voice recognition? Whispering to counter voice signatures/recognition, reasoning your not using your vocal cords. Wireless communication used near hotels, embassy, TV. and Radio stations or freeways during heavy traffic, could be lost in the haze so to speak. Switch channels a lot, Short operating times, Transmit in short burst, package information techniques, and making use of codes. Communication repeater net work. System that repeats last 1/2 dozen transmissions your radio last received. If you missed them due to back ground noises or were not available for some reason, you can recall them. Walkie talkies with short range, low powered hard to jam.
Computer cracking Quantum cryptography – photon particle of light sent out ahead of info. If even looked at its lost /destroyed. Can’t be copied either. Not physically possible to mess with. Protected by the laws of physics even if crackers figure out the ABC of what’s being done. Code bilateral cipher one letter in block alphabet one in cursive. Block = As cursive = Bs, 1s, 0s etc. Codes Jan – 1 Feb.- 2 Mar. -3 April – 4 May – 5 June – 6 July – 7 Aug – 8 Sept – 9 Oct – 10 Nov – 11 Dec – 12. A1 B2 C3 D4 E5 F6 G8 H9 I10 J11 K12 L13 M14 N15 O16 P17 Q18 R19 S20 T21 U23 V24 W25 X26 Y27 Z27.
Some steps that may be taken to reduce the heat effects on radio equipment? Place a piece of wood on top of the radio. Leaving space between the wood and the top of the radio will help cool the equipment. Operating the radio on low power whenever possible will also help.
SP Oct 1999 the Marines have begun receiving their new Kawasaki 650cc (KLR650 or M1030B1) motorcycles, which are used by various units for recon and messenger duty. These will replace less powerful Kawasaki 250s. All 293 motorcycles are to be on hand by the end of 2000. Conversion from gasoline to diesel engines will begin in 2002.
COMMUNICATIONS
Transistor; transferring an electrical signal across a resistor, an electronic device similar in use to the electron tube, consisting of a small block of a semiconductor (as germanium) on which are placed three electrodes of which the emitter and the collector make contact at points very close together on one side of the block while a metal plate makes contact on the opposite with the operation of the device depending upon the peculiar conducting properties of semiconductors in which electrons moving in one direction are considered as leaving holes that serve as carriers of positive electricity in the opposite direction.
Electrodes; a conductor (as a metallic substance or carbon) used to establish electrical contact with a non metallic portion of a circuit (as in an electrolytic cell) a storage battery , an electron tube, or an arc lamp) see anode, cathode.
Emitter; one that emits; often, a substance or electrode that emits particles < radium is an alpha ~> < thermionic ~S). note not sure about notes passed alpha. Maybe in my short hand I was trying to write alpha wave?
Collector; a device (as an electrode) that collects moving electrons, the out put terminal of a transistor.
Resistor; a device possessing electrical resistance used in an electric circuit for protection, operation, or current control.
Atmospheres: Signal propagation. There is a direct relationship between the number of electrons present in the air and the electromagnetic frequency they affect. Cell phones well not work above 8k’? Radar is best below 10k’ and above nap of the earth. Since ionization accurse primarily because of incoming solar radiation the number of electrons increases with altitude. To a maximum limit of 185 miles where electron density is highest and the highest frequencies are refracted. (Refracted –bend). It’s not an even progression but accurse in layers. Some regions weaken distort or even disappear at night or in winter. The regions are D) 55 miles or below. E) 55-100 miles F1) 100-155 miles F2) 155-185 miles. Highest concentration of electrons, density is never grate enough to effect frequencies above 15 million cycles per second. AM radio is broad cased at 555-1.6 million cycles per second they are normally not refracted until (E) but in day light they are absorbed in (D) air denser and free electrons collide more freely, with heavier atoms and molecules than they do in the thinner air above. When such collisions accrue the electro-magnetic energy of the moving electron is lost not only to itself but to the radio wave. This weakens or disappears (i.e. dose not occur) at night how ever. When there are far fewer electrons and collisions in (D). Radio waves pass through unaffected until higher up, making reception of distant AM station possible.
VHF radio wave propagation
Electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines but the transmission process is modified by interaction with the earth's surface and by reflection, refraction and diffraction occurring within the atmosphere. The major source of modification of the paths of radio waves is the radiation related layers within the ionosphere. The process by which the signal (the fixed carrier frequency plus the information) is conveyed between the transmitter and the receiver is propagation. Radio signal energy loss attenuation increases with distance traveled through the atmosphere, or other materials.
Propagation of radio waves within the high frequency HF band (the 'short wave' bands between 3 MHz and 30 MHz, with 12 aeronautical sub-bands in the domestic and international HF networks between 2850 and 22000 kHz) is significantly modified by reflection/refraction within the ionospheric layers – a 'skipping' process which facilitates transmission over very long distances, while using low power and small antennas.
However propagation in the VHF band 30 MHz to 300 MHz, when using low power and small antennas, is chiefly in the form of a direct path, i.e. it is relatively unaffected by reflection, refraction and diffraction within the atmosphere; but is heavily attenuated by the earth's surface and readily blocked, diffracted or reflected by terrain or structures as experienced with VHF band TV reception. Therefore for good reception of VHF there must LoS between the transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna; and the transmitter radio frequency RF output energy must be sufficient that the signal is not overly attenuated over that LOS distance.
LOS distance between a ground station and an aircraft station, or between two aircraft stations, is limited by the curvature of the earth's surface, and dependent on the elevation/height of the two stations and the elevation of intervening terrain. The rule-of-thumb: the maximum direct path distance (the distance to the horizon) between an aircraft and ground station, in nautical miles, is equal to the square root of the aircraft height, in feet, above the underlying (flat) terrain. Actually it is 1.06 times the square root of the height but for our purposes that can be ignored. Theoretical LOS distance to horizon, Aircraft height (feet) verses Maximum LOS distance (nm) 10’/3.2nm, 100’/10nm, 1000’/32nm, 5000’/70nm, 10,000’/100nm.
Estimating the square root: mental calculation is easier if you ignore the two least significant digits of the height, then estimate the square root of the remaining one or two digits and multiply by 10. For example; height 3200 feet, the square root of 32 is between 5 and 6 – say 5.5 and multiply by 10 = 55 nm LOS distance. Another example; height 700 feet, ignore 00, the square root of 7 is between 2 and 3 – say 2.6, multiply by 10 = 26 nm LOS distance.
For air-to-air communications the LOS distance is the sum of two 'distance to horizon' calculations: i.e. one aircraft at 5000 feet the other at 10 000 feet: the maximum LOS distance will be 70 + 100 = 170 nm. It may be a bit more than that because of wave diffraction at the intervening horizon. Intervening mountain terrain may reduce the distance. The LOS distance is the theoretical maximum range for direct path VHF transmission/reception. The actual distance is likely to be a lot less; dependent on the transmitter/receiver system, the type and placement of the antenna, the quality of the receiver/headset system and quite a few other considerations. The effective range may be as low as 5 nm or as much as the full LOS distance but an effective range of 50 nm is probable for a good low-power installation.
VHF (fm) radio transmission range can be affected by heat of day (dessert campaigns). Normal range of receiver may only be 10 km in the desert which provides poor electrical ground and a counterpoise (an artificial ground) is needed to improve the range of antennas. Dry desert conditions can, at times, reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, (FM communications may be degraded due to dead spots caused by heavy concentrations of minerals close to the surface) even with aircraft operating nap of the earth. Directionality - The positioning of antennas created blind spots to the front and rear of aircraft. Aircraft occasionally had to be rotated to communicate with other crews and ground units.
Sound long wave length heard as low pitch sound. Short wave length, high pitch. Below 20 Hz or above 15k Hz. most people cannot hear. Between 20 Hz. and 15k Hz. called audible range. The sounds you here are called Sonics. Below 20 Hz. Subsonic, above 15k ultrasonic. Microphones/transducers are any devices that convert electrical signals to some other from or vice versa. Example of Transverse wave, stone thrown into quiet pool motion of molecules is up and down at Rt angle to the direction in which waves are traveling. Sound waves are not transverse. Example: illustrated motions of amplitude and cycle seen in cross section ( ~~~~~ ) waves of water. Before stone thrown in the water surface is half way between crest and trough of each wave. The max displacement of surface from this zero level is the amplitude of the wave motion. A cycle is one complete double vibration in this case measured from (one crest trough zero to trough zero again and the next crest?) i.e. if you take zero as your reference point you must include one trough and one crest. The numbers of cycles that pass a fixed point in one second gives you the frequency in Hz. A complete wave length is called a hertz.
Frequency modulated (FM) and very high frequency (VHF) radios that serve as the principal medium for C2 will have their effectiveness reduced in built-up areas. The operating frequencies and power output of the sets demand a line-of-sight between antennas. LoS is not always possible at street level. Amplitude modulated (AM) high frequency (HF) sets are less affected by the LoS because operating frequencies are lower and power output is greater. HF radios are not organic to the small units that will conduct the clearing operations. Retransmission stations in aerial platforms for FM and VHF could provide the most effective means if they are available.
Note low energy equals long wavelength. High energy equals short wavelength.
The lower the signal (left side of the FM dial) the longer the antenna needs to be; and inversely, the higher the signal is, the shorter the antenna length needs to be.
When attaching cables with staples or thumbtacks, be careful to only attach through the insulation and not have the metal touch any bare wire.
FIELD-EXPEDIENT ANTENNAS
REPAIR TECHNIQUES
DANGER; DEATH CAN RESULT FROM CONTACT WITH THE RADIATING ANTENNA OF A MEDIUM-POWER OR HIGH-POWER TRANSMITTER. TURN THE TRANSMITTER OFF WHILE MAKING ADJUSTMENTS OR REPAIRS.
a. Whip Antennas. When a whip antenna is broken into two sections, the part of the antenna that is broken off can be connected to the part attached to the base by joining the sections. (Use the method shown in A, Figure 7-1, when both parts of the broken whip are available and usable.) (Use the method in B, Figure 7-1, when the part of the whip that was broken off is lost or when the whip is so badly damaged that it cannot be used.) To restore the antenna to its original length, a piece of wire is added that is nearly the same length as the missing part of the whip. The pole support is then lashed securely to both sections of the antenna. The two antenna sections are cleaned thoroughly to ensure good contact before connecting them to the pole support. If possible, the connections are soldered.

b. WIRE ANTINAS; lower the antenna to the ground, clean the ends of the wires, and twist the wires together. Whenever possible, solder the connection.
(2) If the antenna is damaged beyond repair, construct a new one. Make sure that the length of the wires of the substitute antenna are the same length as those of the original.
(3) Antenna supports may also require repair or replacement. A substitute item may be used in place of a damaged support and, if properly insulated, can be of any material of adequate strength. If the radiating element is not properly insulated, field antennas may be shorted to ground and be ineffective. Many commonly found items can be used as field-expedient insulators. The best of these items are plastic or glass to include plastic spoons, buttons, bottle necks, and plastic bags. Though less effective than plastic or glass but still better than no insulator at all are wood and rope. The radiating element--the actual antenna wire-should touch only the antenna terminal and should be physically separated from all other objects, other than the supporting insulator. (See Figure 7-2 for various methods of making emergency insulators.)

CONSTRUCTION AND ADJUSTMENT
a. Construction. The best wire for antennas is copper and aluminum. (1) The exact length of most antennas is critical. (2) Antennas supported by trees can usually survive heavy wind storms. To keep the antenna taut and to prevent it from breaking or stretching as the trees sway, attach a spring or old inner tube to one end of the antenna. Another technique is to pass a rope through a pulley or eyehook. The rope is attached to the end of the antenna and loaded with a heavyweight to keep the antenna tightly drawn.
(3) Guidelines used to hold antenna supports are made of rope or wire. To ensure the guidelines will not affect the operation of the antenna, the sniper cuts the wire into several short lengths and connects the pieces with insulators.
b. Adjustment. An improvised antenna may change the performance of a radio set. The following methods can be used to determine if the antenna is operating properly:
(1) A distant station may be used to test the antenna. If the signal received from this station is strong, the antenna is operating satisfactorily. If the signal is weak, adjust the height and length of the antenna and the transmission line to receive the strongest signal at a given setting on the volume control of the receiver. This is the best method of tuning an antenna when transmission is dangerous or forbidden.
(2) In some radio sets, use the transmitter to adjust the antenna. First, set the controls of the transmitter to normal; then, tune the system by adjusting the antenna height, the antenna length, and the transmission line length to obtain the best transmission output.
FIELD-EXPEDIENT OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS
Vertical antennas are omnidirectional it transmits and receives equally well in all directions. Most tactical antennas are vertical; for example, the man-pack portable radio uses a vertical whip and so do the vehicular radios in tactical vehicles. A vertical antenna can be made by using a metal pipe or rod of the correct length, held erect by means of guidelines. The lower end of the antenna should be insulated from the ground by placing it on a large block of wood or other insulating material. A vertical antenna may also be a wire supported by a tree or a wooden pole (Figure 7-3). For short vertical antennas, the pole may be used without guidelines (if properly supported at the base). If the length of the vertical mast is not long enough to support the wire upright, it may be necessary to modify the connection at the top of the antenna (Figure 7-4). (See FM 24-18.)


a. End-Fed Half-Wave Antenna. (Figure 7-5) can be constructed from available materials such as field wire, rope, and wooden insulators. The electrical length of this antenna is measured from the antenna terminal on the radio set to the far end of the antenna. The best performance can be obtained by constructing the antenna longer than necessary and then shortening it, as required, until the best results are obtained. The ground terminal of the radio set should be connected to a good earth ground for this antenna to function efficiently.
b. Center-Fed Doublet Antenna is a half-wave antenna consisting of two quarter wavelength sections on each side of the center (Figure 7-6). Doublet antennas are directional broadside to their length, which makes the vertical doublet antenna omnidirectional. This is because the radiation pattern is doughnut-shaped and bidirectional.

(1) Compute the length of a half-wave antenna by using the formula in paragraph 7-5. (2) Uses transmission line for conducting electrical energy from one point to another and for transferring the output of a transmitter to an antenna. Although it is possible to connect an antenna directly to a transmitter, the antenna is usually located some distance away. (3) Support center-fed half-wave FM antennas entirely with pieces of wood. (A horizontal antenna of this type is shown in A, Figure 7-7 and a vertical antenna in B, Figure 7-7.) Rotate these antennas to any position to obtain the best performance.

(a) If the antenna is erected vertically, bring out the transmission line horizontally from the antenna for a distance equal to at least one-half of the antenna's length before it is dropped down to the radio set.
(b) The half-wave antenna is used with FM radios (Figure 7-8). It is effective in heavily wooded areas to increase the range of portable radios. Connect the top guidelines to a limb or pass it over the limb and connect it to the tree trunk or a stake.

FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS
The vertical half-rhombic antenna (Figure 7-9) and the long-wire antenna (Figure 7-10) are two field-expedient directional antennas. These antennas consist of a single wire, preferably two or more wavelengths long, supported on poles at a height of 3 to 7 meters (10 to 20 feet) above the ground. The antennas will, however, operate satisfactorily as low as 1 meter (about 3 feet) above the ground--the radiation pattern is directional. The antennas are used mainly for either transmitting or receiving high-frequency signals.


a. The V antenna (Figure 7-11) is another field-expedient directional antenna. It consists of two wires forming a V with the open area of the V pointing toward the desired direction of transmission or reception. To make construction easier, the legs should slope downward from the apex of the V; this is called a sloping-V antenna (Figure 7-12). The angle between the legs varies with the length of the legs to achieve maximum performance. (to determine the angle and the length of the legs, use the table in Table 7-1.)



b. When the antenna is used with more than one frequency or wavelength, use an apex angle that is midway between the extreme angles determined by the chart. To make the antenna radiate in only one direction, add noninductive terminating resistors from the end of each leg (not at the apex) to ground. (See TM 11-666.)
ANTENNA LENGTH
Length must be considered in two ways: both physical and electrical length, they are never the same. The reduced velocity of the wave on the antenna and a capacitive effect (known as end effect) make the antenna seem longer electrically than it is physically. The contributing factors are the ratio of the diameter of the antenna to its length and the capacitive effect of terminal equipment, such as insulators and clamps, used to support the antenna.
a. calculating physical length, use a correction of 0.95 for frequencies between 3.0 and 50.0 MHz. The figures given below are for a half-wave antenna.

b. Use the following formula to calculate the length of a long-wire antenna (one wavelength or longer) for harmonic operation:

N equals the number of half-wavelengths in the total length of the antenna. For example, if the number of half-wavelengths is 3 and the frequency in MHz is 7, then—

Wave length and antennas from aircraft notes;
It is stated in the electromagnetic spectrum section that the frequency in MHz = 300/wavelength in meters, or restated; the wavelength in meters = 300/MHz.
Thus the wavelengths involved in the aviation VHF COMMS band, 118.00 to 136.975 MHz, are from 2.54 metres to 2.19 meters and the mid-point is about 2.37 meters. The Multicom frequency 127.6 MHz has a wavelength of 300/127.6 = 2.37 metres. Wavelength is important as the efficiency of the antenna (a passive electrical conductor that radiates the signal energy when transmitting, or collects signal energy when receiving) partly depends on its length relative to the frequency wavelength. Most ineffective radio installations are because of ineffective antenna installations and/or RF interference generated by the engine ignition system or the aircraft's electrical components.
7-6. ANTENNA ORIENTATION
If the azimuth of the radio path is not provided, the azimuth should be determined by the best available means. The accuracy required in determining the azimuth of the path depends on the radiation pattern of the directional antenna. In transportable operation, the rhombic and V antennas may have such a narrow beam as to require great accuracy in azimuth determination. The antenna should be erected for the correct azimuth. Great accuracy is not required in erecting broad-beam antennas. Unless a line of known azimuth is available at the site, the direction of the path is best determined by a magnetic compass.
7-7. IMPROVEMENT OF MARGINAL COMMUNICATIONS
Under certain situations, it may not be feasible to orient directional antennas to the correct azimuth of the desired radio path. As a result, marginal communications may suffer. To improve marginal communications, the following procedure can be used:
a. Check, tighten, and tape cable couplings and connections.
b. Return all transmitters and receivers in the circuit.
c. Ensure antennas are adjusted for the proper operating frequency.
d. Change the heights of antennas.
e. Move the antenna a short distance away and in different locations from its original location.
3.2 Transceiver operation from aircraft notes;
The apparatus which comprises an aircraft station is:
an antenna system and feed line coaxial cable
a radio transmitter/receiver unit or transceiver with modulating, transmitting, receiving, demodulating and power amplification circuits: and mounting the operator controls and displays
a speaker/earphone and circuits to convert electromagnetic waves to sound waves
a microphone and circuits to convert sound waves to electromagnetic waves
and the necessary interconnection cables, connectors and matching devices.
All the system components must be correctly matched (electrically) to each other and to any separate cockpit intercom unit installed in a two-seat aircraft.
Transmission
Amplitude modulation (AM) of the fixed RF carrier wave, rather than frequency modulation (FM), is used in the aviation band to impress the voice information on the carrier wave generated by the transceiver. AM occupies less bandwidth than FM consequently the AM channel spacing in the aviation COMMS band is only 25 kHz.
When the transceiver is powered up and the pilot speaks into the microphone, while depressing a 'press-to-talk' (PTT) button, the transmitter circuits amplify and broadcast, via the antenna system, the selected output frequency (126.7 MHz for example) modulated with the audio frequencies from the microphone. Which, by the way, may also include the cockpit background noise. The low fidelity R/T audio frequencies added are in the range 50 Hz – 5000 Hz; much the same as the domestic AM radio broadcast or the public telephone system.
The transmit power of handheld transceivers is usually around 1 to 1.5 watts carrier wave; fixed installation transceivers are around 4 to 8 watts carrier wave.
Some handheld suppliers quote the peak envelope power (PEP) output which for ordinary speech is probably around three times the carrier wave value. The peak envelope power of an AM signal occurs at the highest crest of the modulated wave.
RECEPTION;
An aircraft antenna continually collects all passing RF energy in the band for which it is designed; the receiver tunes out all transmissions on all frequencies except one – the selected, or active, frequency. Signals on this frequency are demodulated to isolate the voice information from the carrier, amplify it and pass to the speaker system to convert to the sound waves heard in the earphones or speaker.
Setting and changing frequencies
Frequencies required are usually entered into a VHF transceiver via an electronic keyboard, concentric rotatable knobs, toggle buttons or a set of thumbwheels. There may be a switch to set channel steps at either 25 kHz or 50 kHz. Most transceivers allow the user to set one frequency into the unit as the active frequency and to set a second frequency as the stand-by frequency. All transmission and reception is done on the active frequency. Pressing a flip-flop, or similar switch, causes the stand-by to become the active and the active to become the stand-by.
Thus normal procedure prior to take-off is to set the airfield frequency as the active and the flight information area FIA frequency as the stand-by. When departing the airfield area pressing the flip-flop will make the FIA frequency active for the required listening watch. On return to the airfield area pressing the flip-flop again restores the airfield frequency to active.
Generally when selecting, keying or dialing another frequency during flight the new frequency changes the stand-by frequency.
Features common to most transceivers
A number of memory positions (5 – 50) allowing storage of frequently used airfield/FIA and other frequencies.
An associated fast scanning function of those stored frequencies.
Instant access to the emergency/distress frequency of 121.5 MHz.
High and low transmit power settings for handheld transceivers giving a choice of minimum battery drain or maximum range.
Handheld transceivers are usually supplied with adapter(s) to connect the unit to the aircraft's COMMS (and NAV) antenna(s).
Handhelds usually have key locking facilities to prevent inadvertent frequency changes or transmissions.
Handhelds may also provide access to the 200 channels in the NAV band between 108.00 and 117.975 MHz, which gives a limited VOR capability if the transceiver can be adapted to a NAV dipole antenna. The main advantage provided by this facility is access to any ATIS or AWIB frequencies between 112.1 and 117.975 MHz.
Headsets
The cockpits of powered light aircraft are notoriously noisy and those close to a high rpm two-stroke engine are the worst. Propeller tip speeds may approach Mach 0.8 and generate noise at fairly high frequencies while the engine produces noise in the low to middle frequencies. External airflow noise may, or may not, be significant depending on the existence and effectiveness of cockpit sealing. In all, the cockpit noise level may approach 100 dB and long term exposure to noise above 90 dB will damage hearing. Also noise and vibration add to pilot fatigue and the low frequency engine noises below 300 Hz are particularly fatiguing.
Headsets serve a dual purpose in providing hearing protection whilst improving communications. The basic headset consists of two earphones with some physical sound sealing capability plus a directional microphone mounted on an adjustable boom, so that it can be positioned within 1 – 3 cm in front of [and square on to] the pilot's lips when transmitting. The headset cables are jacked into the transceiver input/output sockets or patched via a cockpit intercom unit.
Individual volume control on each earphone with an electronic noise reduction system and cockpit noise canceling microphones are available. You can get headsets specifically designed for two stroke engine noise reduction.
Normal headsets rely solely on passive noise reduction – creating a physical barrier around the ear to attenuate noise – which usually works quite well for middle to high frequency sound but doesn't block low frequency engine noise and background rumble.
Active noise reduction technology uses electronics to determine the amount of low frequency (50-600 Hz) range engine and other noise entering the system and then generating out-of-phase noise, in the same frequency range; countering the background noise and leaving a soft 'white' noise in the headphones. But the technology doesn't significantly affect the higher frequency noise.
Using the squelch control
All transceivers have some form of ON/OFF/TEST/VOLUME control. Aircraft cockpits being very noisy the output volume control must be set fairly high, which of course amplifies the weak atmospheric background radio frequency noise – the hash always there when no transmissions are being heard on the active frequency, and can be quite annoying.
The 'squelch' or 'gain' or 'RF gain' or 'sensitivity' control is an adjustable filtering device which, for operator comfort, can be set just to filter out the hash but still allow any strong signals to be switched through. The squelch control should only be switched on and adjusted when contact with the active frequency has been established; otherwise, when the signal is weak, there is a high risk of also filtering out the active frequency. Some transceivers have an automatic gain control in which case pressing the test facility will override the squelch allowing the background hash to be heard.
Transmission/reception pattern
Because of antenna characteristics and airframe shielding the radiation/reception pattern of the antenna will be weaker in some directions and may even exhibit null zones. The easiest way to check this is to tune in the continuous broadcast at a reasonable (30 nm) distance from a known ATIS, AWIB or AERIS location, then circle while listening to the signal strength. A few turns should be sufficient to plot the directions, relative to the aircraft's longitudinal axis, from which signal strength weakens and/or reduces to nil. Because the attitude of the aircraft also affects transmission/reception it is advisable to first fly non-banked turns to ascertain the normal pattern then fly banked turns to check the consequent effects.
Automatic En route Information System network
ATIS the Automatic Terminal Information Systems at some aerodromes
AWIB or AWIS the Automatic Weather Information Broadcast Systems at some aerodromes
Impedance matching
All VHF transceivers are designed for a standard load (impedance) of 50 ohms and ideally the coaxial cable, BNC connectors and antenna match that 50 ohm impedance all the way: then all the transmission power sent to the antenna will be radiated as RF energy. However the resonant frequency of any antenna will match only one frequency and the COMMS operational frequencies range over 19 MHz. So for most transmission frequencies the antenna will exhibit positive or negative reactance (or impedance) which results in the phenomenon know as 'stationary' or 'standing' waves in the feed line, and reduces the output of the antenna. Also the incoming signals will be weaker.
The RF performance of the antenna system is expressed in terms of the voltage standing wave ratio (SWR or VSWR). A perfect (but most unlikely) antenna system would have a SWR of 1:1 but generally a SWR less than 2:1 results in quite acceptable performance and limits transceiver over-heating. The Microair 760 requires a SWR between 1.3:1 and 1.5:1. If the transmission performance is OK then the reception performance should also be OK.
RADIO OPERATIONS UNDER UNUSUAL CONDITIONS
ARCTIC AREAS
Single-channel radio equipment has certain capabilities and limitations that must be carefully considered when operating in cold areas. One limitation is ionospheric disturbances, aka ionospheric storms, have a definite degrading effect on sky wave propagation. Moreover, either the storms or the auroral (such as northern lights) activity can cause complete failure communications. Some frequencies may be blocked completely by static for extended periods during storm activity. Fading, caused by changes in the density and height of the ionosphere, can also occur and may last from minutes to weeks. The occurrence is difficult to predict, the use of alternate frequencies and a greater reliance on FM are required.
a. Antenna Installation in Arctic-like areas presents no serious problems. However, installing some antennas may take longer because of adverse working conditions. Some suggestions for installing antennas in extremely cold areas are as follows:
(1) Antenna cables must be handled carefully since they become brittle.
(2) Whenever possible, antenna cables should be constructed overhead to prevent damage from heavy snow and frost. Nylon rope guidelines, if available, should be used in preference to cotton or hemp because nylon ropes do not readily absorb moisture and are less likely to freeze and break.
(3) An antenna should have extra guidelines, supports, and anchor stakes to strengthen it to withstand heavy ice and wind.
(4) Some radios (usually older generation radios) adjusted to a specific frequency in a relatively warm place may drift off frequency when exposed to extreme cold. Low battery voltage can also cause frequency drift. When possible, a radio should warm up several minutes before placing it into operation. Since extreme cold tends to lower output voltage of a dry battery, warming the battery with body heat before operating the radio set can reduce frequency drift.
(5) When flakes of highly electrically charged snow strikes the antenna the resulting electrical discharge causes a high-pitched static roar that can blanket all frequencies. Overcome by covering antenna elements with polystyrene tape and shellac.
b. Maintenance Improvement in Arctic Areas. Snow can pile up around bases and cause shorts and problems with grounds. Cords must be handled carefully as they may lose their flexibility in extreme cold.
(1) Batteries. Factors: the type and kind of battery i.e. wet and dry cell batteries, the load on the battery, the specific use of the battery, and the degree of exposure.
(2) Winterization. For example, lubricants must be replaced with the recommended Arctic types normal lubricants may solidify and cause damage or malfunctions.
(3) Microphone. Moisture from breath may freeze on the microphone. Covers can be used to prevent this. A suitable cover can be improvised from rubber or cellophane membranes or from rayon or nylon cloth.
(4) Breathing and sweating. A radio set generates heat when it is operated. When turned off, the air inside the radio set cools and contracts, and draws cold air into the set from the outside. This is called breathing. When a radio breathes and the still-hot parts come in contact with subzero air, the glass, plastic, and ceramic parts of the set may cool too rapidly and break. When cold equipment is brought suddenly into contact with warm air, moisture condenses on the equipment parts. This is called sweating. Before cold equipment is brought into a heated area, it should be wrapped in a blanket or parka to ensure that it warms gradually to reduce sweating. Equipment must be thoroughly dry before it is taken into the cold air or the moisture will freeze.
JUNGLE AREAS
However, since single-channel radio can be deployed in many configurations, especially man-packed, it is a valuable communications asset. The capabilities and limitations of single-channel radio must be carefully considered when used by forces in a jungle environment. The mobility and various configurations in which a single-channel radio can be deployed are its main advantages in jungle areas. Limitations on radio communications in jungle areas are due to the climate i.e. heat and humidity increases maintenance and dense growth reduces range of transmission. Thick growth acts as a vertically polarized absorbing screen for radio frequency energy. Therefore, increased emphasis on maintenance and antenna sitting the main problem in establishing communications in jungle areas.
a. Operational Techniques.
(1) Locate antennas in clearings on the edge farthest from the distant station and as high as possible.
(2) Keep antenna cables and connectors off the ground to lessen the effects of moisture, fungus, and insects. This also applies to all power and telephone cables.
(3) Use complete antenna systems, such as ground planes and dipoles, for more effect than fractional wavelength whip antennas.
(4) Clear vegetation from antenna sites. If an antenna touches any foliage, especially wet foliage, the signal will be grounded.
(5) When wet, vegetation acts like a vertically polarized screen and absorbs much of a vertically polarized signal. Use horizontally polarized antennas in preference to vertically polarized antennas.
b. Maintenance Improvement.
Techniques for improving maintenance:
(1) Keep the equipment as dry as possible and in lighted areas to retard fungus growth on connectors, cables, and bare metal parts.
(2) Clear all air vents of obstructions so air can circulate to cool and dry the equipment.
(4) Use moisture and fungus-proofing paint to protect equipment after repairs are made or when equipment is damaged or scratched.
c. Expedient Antennas. While moving, teams are usually restricted to using the short and long antennas that come with the radios. However, when not moving, one can use expedient antennas to broadcast farther and to receive more clearly. However, an antenna that is not "tuned" or "cut" to the operating frequency is not as effective as the whips that are supplied with the radio. Circuits inside the radio "load" the whips properly so that they are "tuned" to give the greatest output. Whips are not as effective as a tuned doublet or tuned ground plane (namely RC 292-type), but the doublet or ground plane must be tuned to the operating frequency. This is especially critical with low-power radios such as the AN/PRC-77.
(1) Expedient 292-type antenna. Developed for use in the jungle. In its entirety, it is bulky, heavy, and not acceptable for sniper team operations. The team can, however, carry only the mast head and antenna sections, mounting these on wood poles or hanging them from trees; or, the team can make a complete expedient 292-type antenna (Figure 7-13), using WD-1, wire, and other readily available material. The team can also use almost any plastic, glass, or rubber objects for insulators. Dry wood (i.e. drift wood) is acceptable when nothing else is available. How to make this antenna:

(a) Use the quick-reference table (Table 7-2) to determine the length of the elements (one radiating and three ground planes) for the frequency that will be used. Cut these elements (A, Figure 7-13) from WD-1 field wire (or similar wire). Cut spacing sticks (B, Figure 7-13) the same length. Place the ends of the sticks together to form a triangle and tie the ends with wire, tape, or rope. Attach an insulator to each corner. Attach a ground-plane wire to each insulator. Bring the other ends of the ground-plane wires together, attach them to an insulator (C, Figure 7-13), and tie securely. Strip about 3 inches of insulation from each wire and twist them together.

(b) Tie one end of the radiating element wire to the other side of insulator C and the other end to another insulator (D, Figure 7-13). Strip about 3 inches of insulation from the radiating element at insulator C.
(c) Cut enough WD-1 field wire to reach from the proposed location of the antenna to the radio set. Keep this line as short as possible, excess length reduces efficiency. Tie a knot at each end to identify it as the "hot" lead. Remove insulation from the "hot" wire and tie it to the radiating element wire at insulator C. Remove insulation from the other wire and attach it to the bare ground-plane element wires at insulator C. Tape all connections and do not allow the radiating element wire to touch the ground-plane wires.
(d) Attach a rope to the insulator on the free end of the radiating element and toss the rope over the branches of a tree. Pull the antenna as high as possible, keeping the lead-in routed down through the triangle. Secure the rope to hold the antenna in place.
(e) At the radio set, remove about 1 inch of insulation from the "hot" lead and about 3 inches of insulation from the other wire. Attach the "hot" line to the antenna terminal (doublet connector, if so labeled). Attach the other wire to the metal case-the handle, for example. Be sure both connections are tight or secure.
(f) Set up correct frequency, turn on the set, and proceed with communications.
(2) Expedient patrol antenna. This is another antenna that is easy to carry and quick to set up (Figure 7-14). The two radiating wires are cut to the length shown in Table 7-2 for the operating frequency. For the best results, the lead-in should extend at least 1.8 meters (6 feet) at right angles (plus or minus 30 degrees) to the antenna section before dropping to the radio set. The easiest way to set up this antenna is to measure the length of the radiating elements from one end of the lead-in (WD-1) and tie a knot at that point. The two wires are separated: one is lifted vertically by a rope and insulator; the other is held down by a rock or other weight and a rope and insulator. The antenna should be as high as possible. The other end of the lead-in is attached to the radio set as described in paragraph 7-9c (1), expedient 292-type antenna.

DESERT AREAS
a. Techniques for Better Operations. Antennas should be located on the highest terrain. In the desert, transmitters using whip antennas lose one-fifth to one-third of their normal range due to the poor electrical grounding common to desert terrain. For this reason, complete antenna systems must be used such as horizontal dipoles and vertical antennas with adequate counterpoises.
b. Equipment Considerations. Some radios automatically switch on their second blower fan if their internal temperature rises too high. Normally, this happens only in temperate climates when the radios are transmitting. Radio frequency power amplifiers used in AM and single sideband sets may overheat and burn out. Such equipment should be turned on only when necessary (signal reception is not affected). Since the RF power amplifiers take about 90 seconds to reach the operating mode, the SOP of units using the equipment allows for delays in replying. Dust affects communications equipment such as SSB/AMRF power amplifiers and radio teletypewriter sets. Radio teletypewriter sets are prone to damage due to the vulnerability of the oil lubrication system, which attracts and holds dust particles. Dust covers, therefore, should be used when possible.
Some receiver-transmitter units have ventilating ports and channels that can get clogged with dust. These must be checked regularly and kept clean to prevent overheating.
c. Batteries. Dry battery supplies must be increased, since hot weather causes batteries to fail more rapidly.
d. Electrical Insulation. Wind-blown sand and grit damage electrical wire insulation over time. All cables that are likely to be damaged should be protected with tape. Sand also finds its way into parts of items, such as "spaghetti cord" plugs, either preventing electrical contact or making it impossible to join the plugs together. A brush, such as an old toothbrush, should be carried and used to clean such items before they are joined.
e. Condensation. In deserts with relatively high dew levels and high humidity, overnight condensation can occur wherever surfaces are cooler than the air temperature, such as metals exposed to air. This condensation can affect electrical plugs, jacks, and connectors. All connectors likely to be affected by condensation should be taped. Plugs should be dried before inserting them into equipment jacks. Excessive moisture or dew should be dried from antenna connectors to prevent arcing.
f. Static Electricity. Prevalent in the desert, is caused by many factors, one of which is wind-blown dust particles. Extremely low humidity contributes to static discharges between charged particles. Poor grounding conditions aggravate the problem. All sharp edges (tips) of antennas should be taped to reduce wind-caused static discharges and the accompanying noise. Since static-caused noise lessens with an increase infrequency, the highest frequencies that are available should be used.
g. Maintenance Improvement. Maintenance is more difficult due to the large amounts of sand, dust, or dirt that enter the equipment. Sets equipped with servomechanisms are especially affected. Keep sets in dustproof containers as much as possible. Air vent filters should also be kept clean to allow cool air to circulate to prevent overheating. Preventive maintenance checks should be made often, closely check the lubricated parts of the equipment.
MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
Operation of radios in mountainous areas have many of the same problems as in northern or cold weather areas. The mountainous terrain makes the selection of transmission sites a critical task. In addition, terrain restrictions often require radio relay stations. Due to terrain obstacles, radio transmissions often have to be by line of sight. Also, the ground in mountainous areas is often a poor electrical conductor. Thus, a complete antenna system, such as a dipole or ground-plane antenna with a counterpoise, should be used. The varied or seasonal temperature and climatic conditions in mountainous areas make flexible maintenance planning a necessity.
FM communications can be ineffective due to high altitude and operating distances. Due to the difficult terrain and modified table of organization and equipment (MTOE) field, units essentially operate from their headquarters and often are limited to tactical satellite (TACSAT) radios to communicate over vast distances. Units have only a single channel wide band TACSAT radio available in use. The TACSAT system is slow and requires deliberate conversation. Army bandwidth may be too narrow for effective communications.
JTIDS Joint tactical information distributing system.
MTN COMUNICATIONS
Line-of-sight communications is excellent in the mountains but difficult to achieve because of high peaks. Therefore, communications sites are carefully selected and often become key terrain. Very-high frequency radios with automatic frequency hopping, encryption, and burst transmission capabilities work best. Normal batteries quickly lose power in the cold, so lithium batteries should be the normal issue. Frequently, mountain tops become part of the national communications infrastructure because they are crowded with military, national, and commercial radio and television sites and telephone relay towers. These vital areas need to be protected, and military platoons often garrison such communications sites against guerrilla attacks.
Frequently, key terrain is related to mobility-passes, main supply routes, road heads, and intermittent staging posts. Light infantry and artillery are the primary combat forces. Sensors for the defense can be rapidly covered by snow.
There are few ideal spots for communication. FM radios, which are line of sight systems, frequently cannot communicate because their signals are absorbed by terrain folds and features. If all the force is on the same side of the mountain and the mountain forms a bowl, FM communications are usually possible. However, radios located on the same side of the mountain at different altitudes can have difficulty communicating. If forces are deployed on the same side of a mountain which curves out, communications are especially difficult. Even FM radios located on the summit have difficulty communicating with radios located further down the mountain. Communications sites must be carefully selected–and often become key terrain. When line-of-sight communications in mountains are possible, communications are excellent, but there are few sites where line-of sight is possible to all other elements in the net. There are often only three solutions–either move the radio to where it can communicate, set up a radio retransmission site or relay messages across the net.
Radio retransmission sites are expensive in terms of personnel and equipment. TO&Es normally do not provide adequate personnel and equipment to provide several retransmission sites. Further, since the retransmission team must work away from the main body, it must have enough personnel to protect itself and haul all its gear (batteries, antennas, guy wires etc.) to the retransmission location. Moving a site is labor intense. Maintaining a site is also a chore. Fresh batteries, chow and water have to be carried to the site and personnel rotated. If the mission is not static defense, the retransmission site has to constantly shift–to yet another site.
During the Soviet-Afghan War, Soviet forces often entered the Hindu Kush or Sulieman range. The Soviets often used Mi-9 VZPU command and control helicopters or other helicopters to conduct retransmission support during movement. Then, the Soviets had to resort to radio relay–a long, tedious process involving relaying the message to various stations until it eventually reaches the intended recipients. At first, communications troops made errors during radio relays. The Soviets solved this problem by requiring their communicators to physically record all messages prior to relaying them. Then they trained their communicators to write clearly and quickly on standard forms using capital letters while never lifting the pencil from the paper. The communicators would repeatedly listen to various transmissions and recordthem to gain proficiency.
UHF radios also present problems in the mountains. Like FM, UHF signals are absorbed by terrain, yet UHF are not restricted to line-of-sight and can bend somewhat over mountain tops. The Soviet tactical UHF radios were normally able to communicate out to 100 kilometers over open ground. They could also communicate out to 100 kilometers with an intervening mountain as long as the transmitting and receiving stations were on high ground and the intervening mountain was midway and no higher than 200 meters above the stations. Taller mountains and multiple peaks interfered with UHF communications. A single, closer, yet lower peak cut transmissions to 20-22 kilometers and that was only if the mountain crest was narrow and both stations were aimed at the sharp peak. UHF communications distance was cut to 10-12 kilometers if the intervening peak rose up to 100 meters higher than the stations. If there were a series of 200 to 400 meter peaks between stations, transmission distance was cut to 9-10 kilometers–and only if both stations were far enough away from the mountain bases and used whip antennae. Large, domed mountains cut UHF transmissions to 5-6 kilometers, while cut-up rugged mountain terrain further limited transmissions to 4-5 kilometers. UHF communications were frequently lost while moving along mountain roads or in the “silent zone” on the far side of mountains.
The Soviets took various measures to support UHF communications in the mountains. These measures included:
1. Select communications sites that have a narrow single mountain crest between them. Aim the transmissions at the highest peak. Keep the sites away from the mountain base. Deploying radios to direct the transmission over a narrow mountain peak (both radio operators must be able to see the mountain peak). 2. Deploy radios away from the mountain base to a distance at least equal to the distance of the slope between the base and mountain crest. 3. Deploy radios to commanding heights to improve their line-of-sight to the top of the intervening mountain. 4. Deploy the radios where they can communicate over a single mountain rather than a series of peaks and defiles. 5. When confronted with a large, domed mountain, deploy the radios away from the base of the mountain and on high ground.
Other problems in the mountains, erecting antennae is one of them. The hard stony ground makes it difficult to pound in stakes for ground wires and guy wires. Winds and slope make it hard to aim and tune antennae. Winds frequently tear down antennae. Another problem is that the optimum communications site may not be the optimum tactical location. Signal sites are often deployed separately from their main body. These sites are attractive targets. Weather is another problem. Antennae attract lightning. Antennae ice over rapidly the ice decreases the transmission power significantly. Diesel engines do not run very well at high altitude, yet most communications generators are diesel-fueled. Standard radio batteries do not handle cold well and therefore the more-expensive lithium batteries are necessary in the high mountains.
U.S. Army during ANACONDA has far more satellite communications radios (SATCOM) than the Soviets did during the Soviet-Afghan War, the During operation Anaconda, 101st units formed a single brigade–Task Force RAKKASANS. The base radio for the ground forces was the SINCGARS family of FM radios. Since the force landed inside a mountain bowl and the range of the battlefield was not too great, the FM radios worked surprisingly well, however, terrain folds frequently absorbed signals. “If you can’t talk, move” was the working solution, although some wags observed that “communications drives maneuver”. The fire direction net, brigade command net and battalion internal nets were all on FM radio. The task force did not use the frequency hopping option on the SINGARS since they also talked to neighboring special operations forces (SOF) on FM on a single frequency. A major advantage of FM radio was that ground forces could communicate with helicopter aviation once they were flying in the bowl. However, once the helicopter cleared the crest of the bowl, FM communication was lost.
The helicopters talked to each other on UHF radio. The ground forces had little luck with UHF radio. Unlike SINCGARS, UHF traffic was plain text. The pilots could talk to the main headquarters at Bagram (over 100 miles away) on UHF. TF RAKKASANS had little confidence or success using UHF on the battlefield, nor did they use HF radio. Canadian forces and SOF used HF radio to send scheduled reports, but not for combat. The ground forces did not bother taking VHF radios since they considered VHF as “unreliable and too complicated”, and “big and bulky and useless”. Indeed the 60-pound weight of the issue VHF radio is prohibitive on any terrain. The AN/PSC-5 TACSAT radio was the primary means of communications beyond the mountain bowl. Encrypted satellite communications were reliable, but the narrow-band width assigned to ground forces by the DAMA (demand assigned multiple access) system made communications very slow and hard to understand. Three battalions and the brigade had to share one 25 kilohertz channel! Further, the brigade’s TACSATs were not data capable which frustrated speed of communications and accuracy. The USAF and SOF, on the other hand had broadband TACSAT and enjoyed good communications. If no helicopters were in the bowl, TF RAKKASANS had to contact the AWACs aircraft by TACSAT. Since AWACS lacks TACSAT retransmission capability to helicopters, AWACs would manually relay messages to the helicopters.
Other means of communication were Iridium satellite telephones. Although they are difficult to encrypt, they provided excellent emergency communications and allowed the brigade to enter SIPERNET through laptop computers. Much necessary communication was done on the Internet through the SIPERNET-Iridium connection. Further, the Iridium net transmitted and received at normal speed while the TACSAT net was very slow and hard to understand. No wire communications were used, since wire is heavy and the brigade had limited lift capability. Radio batteries lasted about a day and fresh batteries were a key logistics concern.
Task Force RAKKASANS had two TACSAT narrow-band nets (one each from the 101st and 10th divisions), a USAF broad-band TACSAT net used by the Air Liaison Officer (ALO) to talk to supporting high-performance aircraft, an FM fire direction net and a FM command net. There were no brigade administrative and logistics or intelligence nets due to the limited number of TACSAT nets available. In order to save time and insure accuracy, when the brigade commander spoke, he spoke only to his commanders and everyone else stayed off the net. Due to the heavy fighting, there was no command and control helicopter over-flying the battlefield. The brigade staff worked out of Bagram where they had access to the Predator UAV feed coming into the 10th Mountain Division Headquarters. Each battalion had two TACSAT radios and the normal compliment of FM radios. Battalions were on the brigade TACSAT command net, the brigade FM command net, the brigade fire direction net and internal command net.
Satellite communications systems do have problems operating around terrain folds as well. Bandwidth and lack of data capability are further serious drawbacks. There is a role for FM and UHF. Iridium phones with computer data link are particularly valuable. Much of the staff work and battle management was accomplished in secure chat rooms. The problem with chat rooms, however, is that anyone with access can join in. The siren call to participate in an operation, even remotely, brought a lot of strap-hangers and time-wasters into the chat room.
Operation Anaconda demonstrated the need to have over-the-horizon communications with aircraft and the main headquarters. Further, the operation demonstrated the need for a survivable command and control aircraft. Data burst technology was not available.
URBANIZED TERRAIN
Special problems some problems are similar to those encountered in mountainous areas including obstacles blocking transmission paths. Others are poor conductivity due to pavement surfaces, and commercial power line interference.
a. VHF are not as effective in urbanized terrain as they are in other areas. The power output and operating frequencies of these sets require a line of sight between antennas not always possible at street level.
b. HF does not require or rely on LoS as much as VHF radios. This is due to operating frequencies being lower and power output being greater. The problem is that HF radio sets are not organic to small units. To overcome this, the VHF signals must be retransmitted.
7-13. NBC ENVIRONMENT
The ionization of the atmosphere by a nuclear explosion will have degrading effects on communications due to static and the disruption of the ionosphere.
a. Electromagnetic pulse results from a nuclear explosion and presents a great danger to communications. This pulse can enter the radio through the antenna system, power connections, and signal input connections. In the equipment, the pulse can break down circuit components such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. It can melt capacitors, inductors, and transformers.
b. Defensive measures against EMP shielding of equipment. When the equipment is not in use, all antennas and cables should be removed.
Dipole antennas
Aircraft COMMS antennas are usually dipoles or monopoles. A dipole is an antenna that is divided into two halves insulated from each other, each half is connected to a feed line (coaxial cable and RF BNC series bayonet connectors), at the inner end, which route the RF energy between the antenna and the transceiver. Each half is a little less than the mid point quarter-wave long usually about 56 cm, or 22 inches. (The mid point quarter wave is 2.37/4 =59 cm.) Rather than being set out end-to-end horizontally, each half is canted up about 22.5° to form an internal angle of around 135°, which prevents a deep "null" zone off both ends. NAV or COMMS dipoles may be mounted within the fuselage, if the aircraft is not metal skinned or metal framed: NAV antennas must be horizontally polarized i.e. mounted horizontally. An end-to-end vertically mounted COMMS dipole antenna can be built into the fin of a fiber-reinforced-plastic aircraft but not if carbon-fiber.
The telescopic 'rabbit's ears' antennas used with the old black and white TVs were dipoles – as channels (frequencies) were changed the length was adjusted to maintain the half-wavelength dimension.
Monopole antennas
The most common light aircraft COMMS antenna the monopole is just one half of a dipole i.e. quarter-wavelength. (To calculate antenna quarter-wavelength in centimeters divide 7130 by the frequency i.e. 7130/126.7 = 56 cm). Thus the monopole is usually about 56 cm long, mounted vertically normally on the top of the fuselage away from the undercarriage legs with the feed line conductor to/from the transceiver connected to the bottom end of the antenna. The 56 cm length should provide very good mid frequency reception and reasonable reception at the lower and upper ends of the COMMS band and, usually, increasing the thickness of the antenna element increases its effectiveness. The antenna element may be enclosed within a streamlined fiberglass fairing to add structural strength.
To replace the other half of the dipole a conductor system is placed just below the antenna to serve as an earth ground – a ground plane, ground screen or at least four ground radial strips or rods, connected to the coax cable shielding. The radius of the ground equals the length of the antenna i.e. 56 cm. In a metal skinned aircraft the fuselage acts as a ground plane, electrically insulated from the antenna by a very small gap.

The photo (looking aft). The centre plate and four 25 mm wide radials are cut from light gauge aluminum sheet. Total dimension from the antenna socket to the end of each radial is 57 cm about the mid point of the COMMS band. The sloped radials provide an antenna impedance of approx 50 ohms. The 50 ohms coax connecting the antenna is attached to the turtle deck formers with plastic P clips.
Bell code;
1 ring for 12;30, 4;30, 8;30
2 rings for 1;00, 5;00, 9;00
3 rings for 1;30, 5;30, 9;30
4 rings for 2;00, 6;00, 10;00
5 rings for 2;30, 6;30, 10;30
6 rings for 3;00, 7;00 11;00
7 rings for 3;30, 7;30, 11;30
8 rings for 4;00, 8;00, 12;00
Appendix PCP rule # 4/5
CLIMBING HARDWARE
Pickets, Ice Axes and hammers
Piton Hammers; has a flat metal head; with a blunt pick on the opposite side; (Figure 3-14). A safety lanyard of nylon cord, webbing, or leather, long enough to allow a full range of motion. Most are approximately 25.5 cm long and weigh 12 to 25 ounces. The hammers primary use is cleaning cracks and rock surfaces to prepare to drive pitons, or assist in removing pitons.
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Figure 3-14 Piton hammer
Ice Ax; the versatility of the ax lends itself to balance, step cutting, probing, self-arrest, belays, anchors, direct-aid climbing. Parts of an ice ax: the shaft (handle), head (pick and adze), and spike (Figure 3-24). The pick should be curved slightly and have teeth at least one-fourth of its length. The adze, used for chopping, is perpendicular to the shaft. It can be flat or curved along its length and straight or rounded from side to side. The head can be of one-piece construction or have replaceable picks and adzes. The head should have a hole directly above the shaft to allow for a leash to be attached. The spike at the bottom of the ax. (primary length of the standard ax is 70 cm). As climbing becomes more technical, a shorter ax is much more appropriate, and adding a second tool is a must when the terrain becomes vertical. The shorter ax has all the attributes of the longer ax, but it is anywhere from 40 to 55 centimeters long and can have a straight or bent shaft depending on the preference of the user.
Ice Hammer; is as short or shorter than the technical ax (Figure 3-24). It is used for pounding protection into the ice or pitons into the rock. The only difference between the ice ax and the ice hammer is the ice hammer has a hammerhead instead of an adze.
Figure 3-24 Ice ax and ice hammers
Note photo edited
Pickets and ice axes may be used as snow anchors as follows. (1) The picket should be driven into the snow at 5 to 15 degrees off perpendicular from the lower surface. If the picket cannot be driven in all the way to the top hole, the carabiner should be placed in the hole closest to the snow surface to reduce leverage. The picket may also be tied off with a short loop of webbing or rope as in tying off pitons. (2) An ice ax can be used in place of a picket. When using an ice ax as a snow anchor, it should be inserted with the widest portion of the ax shaft facing the direction of pull. The simplest connection to the ax is to use a sling or rope directly around the shaft just under the head. If using the leash ensure it is not worn, frayed, or cut from general use; is strong enough; and does not twist the ax when loaded. A carabiner can be clipped through the hole in the head, also. (3) Whenever the strength of the snow anchor is suspect, especially when a picket or ax cannot be driven in all the way, the anchor may be buried in the snow and used as a "dead man" anchor. Other items suitable for dead man anchor construction are backpacks, skis, snowshoes, ski poles, or any other item large enough or shaped correctly to achieve the design. A similar anchor, sometimes referred to as a "dead guy," can be made with a large sack either stuffed with noncompressible items or filled with snow and buried. Ensure the attaching point is accessible before burying. The direction of pull on long items, such as a picket or ax, should be at a right angle to its length. The construction is identical to that of the dead man anchor used in earth.
Chock Picks; used to extract chocks from rock when they become severely wedged (Figure 3-18). When extracting a chock be sure no force is applied directly to the cable juncture. One end of the chock pick should have a hook to use on jammed SLCDs.

Figure 3-18 Chock picks
PITONS
Pitons; Metal pins hammered into cracks in rock. They are described by their thickness, design, and length (Figure 3-13). Types of pitons include: vertical, horizontal, wafer, and angle. The strength of the piton is determined by its placement rather than its rated tensile strength. The two most common types of pitons are: blades, which hold when wedged into tight-fitting cracks, and angles, which hold blade compression when wedged into a crack.

Figure 3-13 Various pitons
Vertical Pitons; the blade and eye are aligned. They are used in flush, vertical cracks. Horizontal Pitons; the eye is at right angles to the blade. They are used in flush, horizontal cracks and in offset or open-book type vertical or horizontal cracks. They are recommended for use in vertical cracks instead of vertical pitons because the torque on the eye tends to wedge the piton into place. This provides more holding power than the vertical piton under the same circumstances. Wafer Pitons; used in shallow, flush cracks. They have little holding power and their weakest points are in the rings provided for the carabiner. Knife Blade Pitons; Used in direct-aid climbing. They are small and fit into thin, shallow cracks. They have a tapered blade that is optimum for both strength and holding power.
Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons; (RURPs) are hatchet-shaped pitons about 1-inch square. They are designed to bite into thin, shallow cracks. Angle Pitons; used in wide cracks that are flush or offset. Maximum strength is attained only when the legs of the piton are in contact with the opposite sides of the crack. Bong Pitons; are angle pitons that are more than 3.8 cm wide. Bongs usually contain holes to reduce weight and accommodate carabiners. They require less hammering than other pitons. Skyhook (Cliffhangers); Small hooks that cling to tiny rock protrusions, ledges, or flakes. Skyhooks require constant tension and are used in a downward pull direction. The curved end will not straighten under body weight. The base is designed to prevent rotation and aid stability. Ice Pitons; used to establish anchor points for climbers and equipment when conducting operations on ice. (Figure 3-27). They are tubular with a hollow core. The eye is permanently fixed to the top of the ice piton. The tip may be beveled to help grab the ice to facilitate insertion. They can, however, pull out easily on warm days and require a considerable amount of effort to extract in cold temperatures.
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Figure 3-27 Ice piton
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Figure 10-16 Ice piton pair
Pitons have been in use for over 100 years. Although still available, pitons are not used as often as other types of artificial anchors due primarily to their impact on the environment. Most climbers prefer to use chocks, SLCDs and other artificial anchors rather than pitons because they do not scar the rock and are easier to remove. Eye protection should always be worn when driving a piton into rock. Note: The proper use and placement of pitons, as with any artificial anchor, should be studied, practiced, and tested while both feet are firmly on the ground and there is no danger of a fall.
a.Ice Pitons. The ice piton is used to establish anchor points. The ice piton is not seen in modern ice climbing but may still be available to the military. The standard ice piton is made of tubular steel and is 10 inches in length. Ice pitons installed in pairs are a bombproof anchor; however, ice pitons have no threads for friction to hold them in the ice once placed and are removed easily. Safe use of ice pitons requires placement in pairs. Used singularly, ice pitons are a strong anchor but are easily removed, decreasing the perceived security of the anchor. Follow the instructions below for placing ice pitons in pairs.
(1) Cut a horizontal recess into the ice, and also create a vertical surface (two clean surfaces at right angles to each other). (2) Drive one piton into the horizontal surface and another into the vertical surface so that the two pitons intersect at the necessary point (Figure 10-16). (3) Connect the two rings with a single carabiner, ensuring the carabiner is not cross-loaded. Webbing or rope can be used if the rings are turned to the inside of the intersection.
(4) Test the piton pair to ensure it is secure. If it pulls out or appears weak, move to another spot and replace it. The pair of pitons, when placed correctly, are multidirectional.
(5) The effective time and or strength for an ice piton placement is limited. The piton will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the pitons with ice chips once they have been placed. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the pitons should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice piton is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube must be removed before it freezes in position, making further use difficult.
Advantages; some advantages in using pitons are: Depending on type and placement, pitons can support multiple directions of pull. Pitons are less complex than other types of artificial anchors. Pitons work well in thin cracks where other types of artificial anchors do not.
Disadvantages; some disadvantages in using pitons are: During military operations, the distinct sound created when hammering pitons is a tactical disadvantage. Due to the expansion force of emplacing a piton, the rock could spread apart or break causing an unsafe condition. Pitons are more difficult to remove than other types of artificial anchors. Pitons leave noticeable scars on the rock. Pitons are easily dropped if not tied off when being used.
Piton Placement; the proper positioning or placement of pitons is critical. (Figure 5-12 shows examples of piton placement.) Usually a properly sized piton for a rock crack will fit one half to two thirds into the crack before being driven with the piton hammer. This helps ensure the depth of the crack is adequate for the size piton selected. As pitons are driven into the rock the pitch or sound that is made will change with each hammer blow, becoming higher pitched as the piton is driven in. (1) Test the rock for soundness by tapping with the hammer. Driving pitons in soft or rotten rock is not recommended. When this type of rock must be used, clear the loose rock, dirt, and debris from the crack before driving the piton completely in. (2) While it is being driven, attach the piton to a sling with a carabiner (an old carabiner should be used, if available) so that if the piton is knocked out of the crack, it will not be lost. The greater the resistance overcome while driving the piton, the firmer the anchor will be. The holding power depends on the climber placing the piton in a sound crack, and on the type of rock. The piton should not spread the rock, thereby loosening the emplacement. Note: Pitons that have rings as attachment points might not display much change in sound as they are driven in as long as the ring moves freely.
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Figure 5-12 Examples of piton placements
(3) Military mountaineers should practice emplacing pitons using either hand. Sometimes a piton cannot be driven completely into a crack, because the piton is too long. Therefore, it should be tied off using a hero-loop (an endless piece of webbing) (Figure 5-13). Attach this loop to the piton using a girth hitch at the point where the piton enters the rock so that the girth hitch is snug against the rock. Clip a carabiner into the loop.
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Figure 5-13 Hero-loop
Testing. To test pitons pull up about 1 meter of slack in the climbing rope or use a sling. Insert this rope into a carabiner attached to the piton, then grasp the rope at least 1/2 meter from the carabiner. Jerk vigorously upward, downward, to each side, and then outward while observing the piton for movement. Repeat these actions as many times as necessary. Tap the piton to determine if the pitch has changed. If the pitch has changed greatly, drive the piton in as far as possible. If the sound regains its original pitch, the emplacement is probably safe. If the piton shows any sign of moving or if, upon driving it, there is any question of its soundness, drive it into another place. Try to be in a secure position before testing. This procedure is intended for use in testing an omni-directional anchor (one that withstands a pull in any direction). When a directional anchor (pull in one direction) is used, as in most free and direct-aid climbing situations, and when using chocks, concentrate the test in the direction that force will be applied to the anchor.
Removing Pitons Attach a carabiner and sling to the piton before removal to eliminate the chance of dropping and losing it. Tap the piton firmly along the axis of the crack in which it is located. Alternate tapping from both sides while applying steady pressure. Pulling out on the attached carabiner eventually removes the piton (Figure 5-14).
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Figure 5-14 Piton removal
Reusing Pitons. Soft iron pitons that have been used, removed, and straightened may be reused, but they must be checked for strength. In training areas, pitons already in place should not be trusted since weather loosens them in time. Also, they may have been driven poorly the first time. Before use, test them as described above and drive them again until certain of their soundness.
Wired Snow Anchors; (or fluke) provides security for climbers and equipment in operations involving steep ascents by burying the snow anchor into deep snow (Figure 3-28). The fluted anchor portion of the snow anchor is made of aluminum. The wired portion is made of either galvanized steel or stainless steel. Available in various sizes their holding ability generally increases with size. They are available with bent faces, flanged sides, and fixed cables. Common types are: Type I is 22 by 14 cm. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 600 kg.
Type II is 25 by 20 cm. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 1,000 kg. The wired snow anchor should be inspected for cracks, broken wire strands, and slippage of the wire through the swage. Snow Picket; used in constructing anchors in snow and ice (Figure 3-28). Made of a strong aluminum alloy 3 millimeters thick by 4 cm wide, and 45 to 90 cm long. They can be angled or T-section stakes. The picket should be inspected for bends, chips, cracks, mushrooming ends, and other deformities. The ends should be filed smooth not bent or cracked.
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Figure 3-28 Snow anchors, flukes, and pickets
CHOCKS
Chocks; "Chocks" is a generic term used to describe the various types of artificial protection other than bolts or pitons. Chocks are essentially a tapered metal wedge constructed in various sizes to fit different sized openings in the rock (Figure 3-15). The design of a chock will determine whether it fits into one of two categories wedges or cams. A wedge holds by wedging into a constricting crack in the rock. A cam holds by slightly rotating in a crack, creating a camming action that lodges the chock in the crack or pocket. Some chocks are manufactured to perform either in the wedging mode or the camming mode. One chock that falls into both categories is the hexagonal-shaped or "hex" chock. They are versatile and come with either a cable loop or is tied with cord or webbing. Most chocks come with a wired loop that is stronger than cord and allows for easier placement. Bigger chocks can be threaded with cord or webbing if the user ties the chock himself. Care should be taken to place tubing in the chock before threading the cord. The cord used with chocks is designed to be stiffer and stronger than regular cord and is typically made of Kevlar. The advantage of using a chock rather than a piton is that a climber can carry many different sizes and use them repeatedly.
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Figure 3-15 Chocks
Chock craft has been in use for many decades. A natural chockstone, having fallen and wedged in a crack, provides an excellent anchor point. Sometimes these chockstones are in unstable positions, but can be made into excellent anchors with little adjustment. Chock craft is an art that requires time and technique to master—simple in theory, but complex in practice. Imagination and resourcefulness are key principles to chock craft. The skilled climber must understand the application of mechanical advantage, vectors, and other forces that affect the belay chain in a fall.
Advantages. The advantages of using chocks are:
Tactically quiet installation and recovery.
Usually easy to retrieve and, unless severely damaged, are reusable.
Light to carry.
Easy to insert and remove.
Minimal rock scarring as opposed to pitons.
Sometimes can be placed where pitons cannot (expanding rock flakes where pitons would further weaken the rock).
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of using chocks are:
May not fit in thin cracks, which may accept pitons.
Often provide only one direction of pull.
Practice and experience necessary to become proficient in proper placement.
Placement. The principles of placing chocks are to find a crack with a constriction at some point, place a chock of appropriate size above and behind the constriction, and set the chock by jerking down on the chock loop (Figure 5-15). Maximum surface contact with a tight fit is critical. Chocks are usually good for a single direction of pull.

Figure 5-15 Chock placements
(1) Avoid cracks that have crumbly (soft) or deteriorating rock, if possible. Some cracks may have loose rock, grass, and dirt, which should be removed before placing the chock. Look for a constriction point in the crack, then select a chock to fit it. (2) When selecting a chock, choose one that has as much surface area as possible in contact with the rock. A chock resting on one small crystal or point of rock is likely to be unsafe. A chock that sticks partly out of the crack is avoided. Avoid poor protection. Ensure that the chock has a wire or runner long enough; extra ropes, cord, or webbing may be needed to extend the length of the runner. (3) End weighting of the placement helps to keep the protection in position. A carabiner often provides enough weight (4) Parallel-sided cracks without constrictions are a problem. Chocks designed to be used in this situation rely on camming principles to remain emplaced. Weighting the emplacement with extra hardware is often necessary to keep the chocks from dropping out.
(a) Emplace the wedge-shaped chock above and behind the constriction; seat it with a sharp downward tug.
(b) Place a camming chock with its narrow side into the crack, then rotate it to the attitude it will assume under load; seat it with a sharp downward tug.
Testing After seating a chock, test it to ensure it remains in place. A chock that falls out when the climber moves past it is unsafe and offers no protection. To test it, firmly pull the chock in every anticipated direction of pull. Some chock placements fail in one or more directions; therefore, use pairs of chocks in opposition.
Three-Point Camming Device; the device's unique design allows it to be used both as a camming piece and a wedging piece (Figure 3-16). Because of this design it is extremely versatile and, when used in the camming mode, will fit a wide range of cracks.
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Figure 3-16 Three-point camming device
Camming Devices;
Spring-Loaded Camming Devices; (SLCDs) (Figure 3-17) provide convenient, reliable placement in cracks where standard chocks are not practical (parallel or flaring cracks or cracks under roofs). SLCDs have three or four cams rotating around a single or double axis with a rigid or semi-rigid point of attachment. These are placed quickly and easily, saving time and effort. Fits a wide range of crack widths due to the rotating cam heads. The shafts may be rigid metal or semi-rigid cable loops. The flexible cable reduces the risk of stem breakage over an edge in horizontal placements.
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Figure 3-17 Spring-loaded camming devices
SPRING-LOADED CAMMING DEVICE
The SLCD offers quick and easy placement of artificial protection. It is well suited in awkward positions and difficult placements, since it can be emplaced with one hand. It can usually be placed quickly and retrieved easily (Figure 5-16).
a. To emplace an SLCD hold the device in either hand like a syringe, pull the retractor bar back, place the device into a crack, and release the retractor bar. The SLCD holds well in parallel-sided hand- and fist-sized cracks. Smaller variations are available for finger-sized cracks.
b. Careful study of the crack should be made before selecting the device for emplacement. It should be placed so that it is aligned in the direction of force applied to it. It should not be placed any deeper than is needed for secure placement, since it may be impossible to reach the extractor bar for removal. An SLCD should be extended with a runner and placed so that the direction of pull is parallel to the shaft; otherwise, it may rotate and pull out. The versions that have a semi-rigid wire cable shaft allow for greater flexibility and usage, without the danger of the shaft snapping off in a fall.
BOLTS
Bolts; are screw-like shafts that are drilled into rock to provide protection (Figure 3-19). The two types are contraction bolts and expansion bolts. Contraction bolts are squeezed together when driven into a rock. Expansion bolts press around a surrounding sleeve to form a snug fit into a rock. Bolts require drilling a hole into a rock, which is time-consuming, exhausting, and extremely noisy. A hanger (for carabiner attachment) and nut are placed on the bolt. The bolt is then inserted and driven into the hole. Because of this requirement, a hand drill must be carried in addition to a piton hammer. Hand drills (also called star drills) are available in different sizes, brands, and weights. A hand drill should have a lanyard to prevent loss. Self-driving bolts are quicker and easier to emplace. These require a hammer, bolt driver, and drilling anchor, which is driven into the rock. A bolt is hammered only when it is the nail or self-driving type. A bolt and carrier are then secured to the emplaced drilling anchor. All metal surfaces should be smooth and free of rust, corrosion, dirt, and moisture. Burrs, chips, and rough spots should be filed smooth and wire-brushed or rubbed clean with steel wool. Items that are cracked or warped indicate excessive wear and should be discarded. Once emplaced, bolts are the most secure protection for a multidirectional pull. Bolts should be used only when chocks and pitons cannot be emplaced.
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Figure 3-19 Bolts and hangers
Bolts are often used in fixed-rope installations and in aid climbing where cracks are not available.
Bolts provide one of the most secure means of establishing protection. The rock should be inspected for evidence of crumbling, flaking, or cracking, and should be tested with a hammer. Emplacing a bolt with a hammer and a hand drill is a time-consuming and difficult process that requires drilling a hole in the rock deeper than the length of the bolt. This normally takes more than 20 minutes for one hole. Electric or even gas-powered drills can be used to greatly shorten drilling time. However, their size and weight can make them difficult to carry on the climbing route.
A hanger (carrier) and nut are placed on the bolt, and the bolt is inserted and then driven into the hole. A climber should never hammer on a bolt to test or "improve" it, since this permanently weakens it. Bolts should be used with carriers, carabiners, and runners. When using bolts, the climber uses a piton hammer and hand drill with a masonry bit for drilling holes. Some versions are available in which the sleeve is hammered and turned into the rock (self-drilling), which bores the hole. Split bolts and expanding sleeves are common bolts used to secure hangers and carriers (Figure 5-17). Surgical tubing is useful in blowing dust out of the holes. Nail type bolts are emplaced by driving the nail with a hammer to expand the sleeve against the wall of the drilled hole. Safety glasses should always be worn when emplacing bolts.
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Figure 5-17 Bolt with expanding sleeve
Ice Screws
Ice Screws; are made of chrome-molybdenum steel and vary in lengths from 11 cm to 40 cm (Figure 3-26). The eye is permanently affixed to the top of the ice screw. The tip consists of milled or hand-ground teeth, which create sharp points to grab the ice when being emplaced. Use right-hand threads to penetrate the ice when turned clockwise.
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Figure 3-26 Ice screws
Choose a screw with a large thread count and large hollow opening. The close threads will allow for ease in turning and better strength. A file may be used to sharpen the ice screw points. The large hollow opening will allow snow and ice to slide through when turning. Type I is 17 cm in length with a hollow inner tube. Type II is 22 cm in length with a hollow inner tube. Other variations are hollow alloy screws that have a tapered shank with external threads, which are driven into ice and removed by rotation. Steel wool should be rubbed on rusted surfaces and a thin coat of oil applied when storing steel ice screws.
Figure 10-17. Placement of ice screw using the pick.
(3) Turn the screw until the eye or the hanger of the ice screw is flush with the ice and pointing down. The screw should be placed at an angle 90 to 100 degrees from the lower surface. Use either your hand or the pick of the ice ax to screw it in. If you have a short ax (70 centimeters or less), you may be able to use the spike in the eye or hanger to ease the turning. (Remember that you may only have use of one hand at this point depending on your stance and the angle of the terrain.) (4) As with ice pitons, melting of the ice around a screw over a period of time must be considered. The effective time and or strength of an ice screw placement is limited. The screw will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the screw with ice chips once it has been emplaced. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the screws should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice screw is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube, must be removed before further use.
The ice screw is the most common type of ice protection and has replaced the ice piton for the most part (Figure 10-17). Some screws have longer "hangers" or handles, which allow them to be easily twisted into position by hand. Place ice screws as follows: (1) Clear away all rotten ice from the surface and make a small hole with the ax pick to start the ice screw in. (2) Force the ice screw in until the threads catch.
ASCENDERS
Ascenders; may be used in other applications such as a personal safety or hauling line cam. All modern ascenders work on the principle of using a cam-like device to allow movement in one direction. (Figure 3-22). For difficult vertical terrain, two ascenders work best. For lower angle movement, one ascender is sufficient. Most manufacturers make ascenders as a right and left-handed pair.
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Figure 3-22 Ascenders
Pulleys; used to change direction in rope systems and to create mechanical advantage in hauling systems. They should accommodate the largest diameter of rope being used. Pulleys are made with several bearings, different-sized sheaves (wheel), and metal alloy side plates (Figure 3-23). Plastic pulleys should always be avoided. The side plate should rotate on the pulley axle to allow the pulley to be attached at any point along the rope. For best results, the sheave diameter must be at least four times larger than the rope's diameter to maintain high rope strength.
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Figure 3-23 Pulley
Belay Devices; Note: All belay devices can also be used as descending devices. Belay devices range from the least equipment intensive (the body belay) to high-tech metal alloy pieces of equipment. Regardless of the belay device choosen, the basic principal remains the same friction around or through the belay device controls the ropes' movement. Belay devices are divided into three categories: the slot, the tuber, and the mechanical camming device (Figure 3-20). The slot piece of equipment that attaches to a locking carabiner in the harness; a bight of rope slides through the slot and into the carabiner for the belay. The most common slot type belay device is the Sticht plate.
The tuber is used exactly like the slot but its shape is more like a cone or tube. The mechanical camming device is a manufactured piece of equipment that attaches to the harness with a locking carabiner. The rope is routed through this device so that when force is applied the rope is cammed into a highly frictioned position.
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Figure 3-20 Slot, tuber, mechanical camming device
Descenders; One piece of equipment used for generations as a descender is the carabiner. A figure-eight is another useful piece of equipment and can be used in conjunction with the carabiner for descending (Figure 3-21).
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Figure 3-21 Figure-eights
Carabiners; is the connection between the climber, his rope, and the pitons attached to the mountain. Basic shapes, the oval, the D-shaped, and pear-shaped are just some types. Most models can be made with or without a locking mechanism for the gate opening (Figure 3-11). With a locking mechanism, it is referred to as a locking carabiner. When using a carabiner, great care should be taken to avoid loading the carabiner on its minor axis and to avoid three-way loading (Figure 3-12). Overall areas referred to as major axis, minor axis, and the gate.
Note: Great care should be used to ensure all carabiner gates are closed and locked during use.
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Figure 3-11 Nonlocking and locking carabiners
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Figure 3-12 Major and minor axes and three-way loading
The major difference between the oval and the D-shaped carabiner is strength. Because of the design of the D-shaped carabiner, the load is angled onto the spine of the carabiner thus keeping it off the gate. The down side is that racking any gear or protection on the D-shaped carabiner is difficult because the angle of the carabiner forces all the gear together making it impossible to separate quickly.
The pear-shaped carabiner, specifically the locking version, is excellent for clipping a descender or belay device to the harness. They work well with the munter hitch belaying knot.
CLIMBING SOFTWARE
Climbing software refers to rope, cord, webbing, and harnesses. Should only be used if it has the UIAA certificate of safety. UIAA is the organization that oversees the testing of mountaineering equipment. It is based in Paris, France, and comprises several commissions.
Ropes and Cord; the construction technique is referred to as Kernmantle, which is, essentially, a core of nylon fibers protected by a woven sheath, similar to parachute or 550 cord (Figure 3-8).
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Figure 3-8 Kernmantle construction
Ropes come in two types: static and dynamic. This refers to their ability to stretch under tension. A static rope has very little stretch, perhaps as little as one to two % and is best used in rope installations. A dynamic rope is most useful for climbing and general mountaineering. Its ability to stretch up to 1/3 of its overall length makes it the right choice any time the user might take a fall. Dynamic and static ropes come in various diameters and lengths. For most military applications, a standard 10.5- or 11-mm by 50-meter dynamic rope and 11-mm by 45-meter static rope will be sufficient. When choosing dynamic rope, factors include intended use, impact force, abrasion resistance, and elongation. Cord or small diameter rope is indispensable its many uses make it a valuable piece of equipment. All cord is static and constructed in the same manner as larger rope. If used for Prusik knots, the cord's diameter should be 5 to 7 mm when used on an 11-mm rope.
Webbing and Slings; Loops of tubular webbing or cord, called slings or runners, are the simplest pieces of equipment and some of the most useful. Uses are endless, and they are a critical link between the climber, the rope, carabiners, and anchors. Runners are predominately made from either 9/16-inch or 1-inch tubular webbing and are either tied or sewn by a manufacturer (Figure 3-9). Runners can also be made from a high-performance fiber known as spectra, which is stronger, more durable, and less susceptible to ultraviolet deterioration. Runners should be retired regularly following the same considerations used to retire a rope. For most military applications, a combination of different lengths of runners is adequate. Tied runners advantages over sewn runners are inexpensive to make, can be untied and threaded around natural anchors, and can be untied and retied to other pieces of webbing to create extra long runners. Sewn runners have their own advantages they tend to be stronger, are usually lighter, and have less bulk than the tied version. Also eliminate a major concern with the homemade knotted runner the possibility of the knot untying. Sewn runners standard lengths: 2 inches, 4 in, 12 in, and 24 in. Standard widths: 9/16 in, 11/16 in, and 1 in.
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Figure 3-9 Tied or sewn runners
ROPE MANAGEMENT AND KNOTS
TERMINOLOGY
When using ropes, understanding basic terminology is important. The terms explained in this section are the most commonly used in military mountaineering. (Figure 4-2 illustrates some of these terms.)
Bight; is a simple bend of rope in which the rope does not cross itself.
Loop; is a bend of a rope in which the rope does cross itself.
Half Hitch; is a loop that runs around an object in such a manner as to lock or secure itself.
Turn; wraps around an object, providing 360-degree contact.
Round Turn; wraps around an object one and one-half times. A round turn is used to distribute the load over a small diameter anchor (3 inches or less). It may also be used around larger diameter anchors to reduce the tension on the knot, or provide added friction.
Running End; is the loose or working end of the rope.
Standing Part; is the static, stationary, or nonworking end of the rope.
Lay; is the direction of twist used in construction of the rope.
Pigtail; (tail) is the portion of the running end of the rope between the safety knot and the end of the rope.
Dress; is the proper arrangement of all the knot parts, removing unnecessary kinks, twists, and slack so that all rope parts of the knot make contact.
All knots are divided into 4 classes: Class I joining knots, Class II anchor knots, Class III middle rope knots, and Class IV special knots. The variety of knots, bends, bights, and hitches is almost endless. These classes of knots are intended only as a general guide since some of the knots discussed may be appropriate in more than one class.
A good knot must be easy to tie, hold without slipping, and be easy to untie. The choice of the best knot, bend, or hitch to use depends largely on the job it has to do (Figure 12-10). Always follow this rule: never tie a knot on which you are not willing to stake your life. Each of the three terms--knot, bend, and hitch--has a specific definition. In a knot, a line is usually bent or tied to itself, forming an eye or a knob or securing a cord or line around an object, such as a package. In its noun form, a bend ordinarily is that used to join the ends of two lines together. In its verb form, bend means the act of joining; bent is the past tense of bend. A hitch differs from a knot and a bend in that it ordinarily is tied to a ring, around a spar or stanchion, or around another line. In other words, it is not merely tied back on itself to form an eye or to bend two lines together. Tying a knot, bend, or hitch in a line weakens it because the fibers are bent sharply, causing the line to lose varying degrees of its efficiency or strength. A general rule to follow is to use a knot, bend, or hitch for temporary work and use a splice for permanent work because it retains more of the line's strength.
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Figure 12-10 Elements of the Knot, Bend, and Hitch
Figure 4-2 Examples of roping terminology
Packaging; new rope comes from the manufacturer in different configurations boxed on a spool in various lengths, or coiled and bound in some manner. Precut ropes are usually packaged in a protective cover such as plastic or burlap. Do not remove the protective cover until the rope is ready for use.
Securing the Ends of the Rope: if still on a spool, the rope must be cut to the desired length. All ropes will fray at the ends unless they are bound or seared. Both static and dynamic rope ends are secured in the same manner. The ends must be heated to the melting point so as to attach the inner core strands to the outer sheath. By fusing the two together, the sheath cannot slide backward or forward. Ensure that this is only done to the ends of the rope. The ends may also be dipped in enamel or lacquer. Do not splice ropes for use in mountaineering.
Never cut a line or leave the end of a line dangling loose without a whipping to prevent it from unlaying. A line without a whipping will unlay of its own accord. A frayed line is a painful sight to a good seaman. Whenever a line or hawser has to be cut, whippings should be put on first. Put one whipping on each side of the cut. To prevent fraying, a temporary or plain whipping can be put on with any type of cordage, even with rope yarn. Figure 12-6 shows one of several methods that can be used for putting a temporary whipping on a line.
Do the following to make a temporary whipping (see also Figure 12-6). Step 1. Lay the end of the whipping along the line and bind it down with three or four round turns. Step 2. Then lay the other end on the opposite way.
Step 3. Bind it with a bight of the whipping. Step 4. Then take a couple more turns. Step 5. Take the bitter end of the whipping and pull it tight.
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Figure 12-6 plain or temporary whipping
12-30. as its name implies, a permanent whipping is put on to stay. One way to put on a permanent whipping is with a needle (Figure 12-7) and a sewing palm (Figure 12-8). Sewing palms are made for both right- and left-handed people. The width of the permanent whipping should equal the diameter of the line. Two whippings are recommended. The space between the two whippings should be six times the width of the first whipping.
Figure 12-7 Short Spur Needle
Figure 12-8 Sewing Palm
for Rope Work
12-31. Do the following steps to make a permanent whipping (see also Figure 12-9).
Note: The needle is threaded with sail twine, doubled. Figure 12-9 also shows a single strand for clearness.
Step 1. Push the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands on the other side.
Step 2. Wind the turns toward the bitter end. The number of turns or the width of the whipping will depend on the diameter of the line. Step 3. Push the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands again. Step 4. Then go up and down between strands so as to put a cross-seizing between each pair of strands.
Step 5. Pull each cross-seizing taut before taking the next one. Step 6. Have the thread come out through the middle of a strand the last time you push it through so that after you knot and cut the thread, the strand will hold the end of the twine.
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Figure 12-9 Making a Permanent Whipping
Storage; areas should be relatively cool with low humidity levels to prevent mildew or rotting. Rope may also be loosely stacked and placed in a rope bag and stored on a shelf or loosely coiled and hung on wooden pegs rather than nails or other metal objects. Always keep the rope as dry as possible. Should the rope become wet, hang it in large loops off the ground. Never dry a rope with high heat or in direct sunlight. Do not mark ropes with paints or allow them to come in contact with oils or petroleum products. Never leave a rope knotted or tightly stretched for longer than necessary. Do not step on or drag on the ground unnecessarily. Never use a mountaineering rope for any purpose except mountaineering. Periodic washing to remove dirt and grit, use only front loading machines on a gentle cycle, in cold water with a nylon safe soap, never bleach or harsh cleansers rinse thoroughly. Commercial rope washers are made from short pieces of modified pipe that connect to faucet. Pinholes within the pipe force water to circulate around and scrub the rope as you slowly feed it through the washer.
The climber’s lifeline, select the proper rope for the task to be accomplished according to type, diameter, length, and tensile strength. It is important to prepare and inspect all ropes before mission and after each use, especially when working around rock with sharp edges. Avoid rope preparation in the field. Each rope well have a rope log (DA Form 5752-R, Rope History, Usage and quality of maintenance) aka safety record. Should be annotated each time the rope is used. It should annotate use (service life depends on the frequency of use i.e. dates, applications i.e. rappelling, climbing, rope installations, speed of descent, number of falls, surface abrasion i.e. frayed or cut spots, mildew or rot, or defects in construction (new rope) terrain, climate/weather. Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) tends to deteriorate nylon over time. This becomes important if rope installations are left in place over a number of months). Although the core of the kernmantle rope cannot be seen, it can be damaged without damaging the sheath. Check a kernmantle rope by inspecting the sheath while the rope is being coiled. Be aware of how the rope feels. Immediately note and tie off any lumps or depressions felt. Damage to the core usually consists of filaments or yarn breakage that results in a slight retraction. If enough strands rupture, a localized reduction in the diameter of the rope results in a depression that can be felt or even seen. Check any other suspected areas further by putting them under tension (the weight of one person standing on a Prusik tensioning system is about maximum). This procedure will emphasize the lump or depression by separating the broken strands and enlarging the dip. Many dynamic kernmantle ropes are quite soft. They may retain an indention after an impact or under normal use without any trauma to the core. Damage to the sheath does not always mean damage to the core. While in use, do not allow the rope to come into contact with sharp edges. Nylon rope is easily cut, particularly when under tension. If the rope must be used over a sharp edge, pad the edge for protection. Never allow one rope to continuously rub another. Rope-on-rope contact with nylon rope is extremely dangerous the heat will melt the nylon.
COILING AND CARRYING THE ROPE
The ease and speed of rope deployment and recovery greatly depends upon technique and practice.
Use the mountain or butterfly coil to coil and carry the rope. Results minimum amount of kinks, twists, and knots during deployment. Mountain coil; to start grasp the rope approximately 1 meter from the end with one hand. Run the other hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched. Grasping the rope firmly, bring the hands together forming a loop, which is laid in the hand closest to the end of the rope. This is repeated, forming uniform loops that run in a clockwise direction. The rope may be given a 1/4 twist as each loop is formed to overcome any tendency for the rope to twist or form figure-eights. (1) In finishing the mountain coil, form a bight approximately 30 cm long with the starting end of the rope and lay it along the top of the coil. Uncoil the last loop and, using this length of the rope, begin making wraps around the coil and the bight, wrapping toward the closed end of the bight and making the first wrap bind across itself so as to lock it into place. Make 6 to 8 wraps to secure the coil, and then route the end of the rope through the closed end of the bight. Pull the running end of the bight tight, securing the coil. (2) May be carried either in the pack (by forming a figure eight), doubling it and placing it under the flap, or by placing it over the shoulder and under the opposite arm, slung across the chest. (Figure 4-3 shows how to coil a mountain coil.)
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Figure 4-3 Mountain coil
Butterfly Coil; is the quickest and easiest technique for coiling (Figure 4-4).
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Figure 4-4 Butterfly coil
(1) To start the double butterfly, grasp both ends of the rope and begin back feeding. Find the center of the rope forming a bight. With the bight in the left hand, grasp both ropes and slide the right hand out until there is approximately one arms length of rope. Place the doubled rope over the head, draping it around the neck and on top of the shoulders. Ensure that it hangs no lower than the waist. With the rest of the doubled rope in front of you, make doubled bights placing them over the head in the same manner as the first bight. Coil alternating from side to side (left to right, right to left) while maintaining equal-length bights. Continue coiling until approximately two arm-lengths of rope remain. Remove the coils from the neck and shoulders carefully, and hold the center in one hand. Wrap the two ends around the coils a minimum of three doubled wraps, ensuring that the first wrap locks back on itself. (2) Tie-off and Carrying. Take a doubled bight from the loose ends of rope and pass it through the apex of the coils. Pull the loose ends through the doubled bight and dress it down. Place an overhand knot in the loose ends, dressing it down to the apex of the bight securing coils. Ensure that the loose ends do not exceed the length of the coils. In this configuration the coiled rope is secure enough for hand carrying or carrying in a rucksack, or for storage. (Figure 4-5 shows a butterfly coil tie-off.)
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Figure 4-5 Butterfly coil tie-off
Coiling Smaller Diameter Rope; you may using the butterfly or mountain coil depending on the length of the rope. Pieces 25 ft and shorter (also known as cordage, sling rope, utility cord) may be coiled so that they can be hung from the harness. Bring the two ends of the rope together, ensuring no kinks are in the rope. Place the ends of the rope in the left hand with the two ends facing the body. Coil the doubled rope in a clockwise direction forming 6- to 8-inch coils (coils may be larger depending on the length of rope) until an approximate 12-inch bight is left. Wrap that bight around the coil, ensuring that the first wrap locks on itself. Make three or more wraps. Feed the bight up through the bights formed at the top of the coil. Dress it down tightly. Now the piece of rope may be hung from a carabiner on the harness.
Uncoiling, Back-feeding, and Stacking/laying; when the rope is needed for use, it must be uncoiled and stacked on the ground properly to avoid kinks and snarls. (1) Untie the tie-off and stack the coil on the ground. Back-feed the rope to minimize kinks and snarls. (This is also useful when the rope is to be moved a short distance and coiling is not desired.) Take one end of the rope in the left hand and run the right hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched. Next, lay the end of the rope in the left hand on the ground. With the left hand, re-grasp the rope next to the right hand and continue stacking the rope on the ground. (2) The rope should be stacked in a neat pile on the ground to prevent it from becoming tangled and knotted when throwing or feeding it. This technique can also be started using the right hand.
THROWING THE ROPE;
Before throwing the rope, it must be properly managed to prevent it from tangling during deployment. It should first be anchored to prevent complete loss of the rope over the edge when it is thrown. Several techniques can be used when throwing a rope. Personal preference and situational and environmental conditions should be taken into consideration. Back feed and neatly stack rope into coils beginning with the anchored end working toward the running end. Once stacked, make 6 to 8 smaller coils in the left hand. Pick up the rest of the larger coils in the right hand. The arm should be generally straight when throwing. You may throw underhanded or over handed depending on obstacles around the site. Make a few preliminary swings to ensure a smooth throw (OBTIONAL as soon as the rope leaves the hand, the thrower should sound off with a warning of "ROPE" to alert anyone below the site). Throw large coils in the right hand first. Throw up and out. A slight twist of the wrist, so that the palm of the hand faces up as the rope is thrown, allows the coils to separate easily a smooth follow through is essential. When a slight tug on the left hand is felt, toss the 6 to 8 smaller coils out. This will prevent the ends of the rope from becoming entangled with the rest of the coils as they deploy. Another technique; anchor, back feed, and stack the rope as before. Take the end of the rope and make 6 to 8 helmet-size coils in the right hand (more may be needed depending on the length of the rope). Assume a "quarterback" simulated stance. Aiming just above the horizon, throw the rope over handed up and out toward the horizon. When windy weather conditions prevail, adjustments must be made. In a strong cross wind, the rope should be thrown angled into the wind so that it will land on the desired target. The stronger the wind, the harder the rope must be thrown to compensate.
SQUARE KNOT; used to tie the ends of two ropes of equal diameter (Figure 4-6). It is a joining knot Its strength is 45 percent. STEPS 1. Holding one working end in each hand, place the working end in the right hand over the one in the left hand. 2. Pull it under and back over the top of the rope in the left hand. 3. Place the working end in the left hand over the one in the right hand and repeat 2. STEP 4. Dress the knot down and secure it with an overhand knot on each side of the square knot. To avoid a "granny" or a "fool's knot" which will slip, follow this procedure. Take the end in your right hand and say "over and under." Pass it over and under the part in your left hand as shown in Figure 12-13. With your right hand, take the end that was in your left hand. This time say to yourself "under and over." Pass it under and over the part in your left hand.
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Figure 4-6 Square knots
Checkpoints; 1There are two interlocking bights. 2 The running end and standing part are on the same side of the bight formed by the other rope. 3 The running ends are parallel to and on the same side of the standing ends with 4-inch minimum pig tails after the overhand safeties are tied. Figure 12-13 shows that the end and standing part of one line come out on the same side of the bight formed by the other line. This knot will not hold if the lines are wet or are of unequal sizes. It tightens under strain but can be untied by grasping the ends of the two bights and pulling the knot apart.
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Figure 12-13 Square Knots
OVERHAND KNOT
It is the basis for all knots. It is the simplest and the most commonly used. It may be used to prevent the end of a line from untwisting, to form a knot at the end of a line, or to be part of another knot. When tied to the end of a line, this knot will prevent it from running through a block, hole, or other knot.
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Figure 12-11 Overhand Knot
FIGURE EIGHT KNOT
Used to form a larger knot at the end of a line. To prevent a line from running through a block. To tie this knot, form an overhand loop in the line and pass the running end under the standing part, up the other side, and through the loop. Tighten the knot by pulling on the running end and the standing part.
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Figure 12-12 Figure Eight Knot
FISHERMAN’S KNOT is used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same diameter (Figure 4-7). It is a joining knot. STEPS 1. Tie an overhand knot in one end of the rope. 2. Pass the working end of the other rope through the first overhand knot. Tie an overhand knot around the standing part of the first rope with the working end of the second rope. 3. Tightly dress down each overhand knot and tightly draw the knots together.
Figure 4-7 Fisherman’s knot
Checkpoints; 1 the two separate overhand knots are tied tightly around the long, standing part of the opposing rope. 2 The two overhand knots are drawn snug. 3 Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.
DOUBLE FISHERMAN’S KNOT; (aka double English or grapevine) used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same diameter (Figure 4-8). It is a joining knot. STEPS 1 with the working end of one rope, tie two wraps around the standing part of another rope. 2. Insert the working end (STEP 1) back through the two wraps and draw it tight. 3. with the working end of the other rope, which contains the standing part (STEPS 1 and 2), tie two wraps around the standing part of the other rope (the working end in STEP 1). Insert the working end back through the two wraps and draw tight. 4. Pull on the opposing ends to bring the two knots together.
Figure 4-8 Double fisherman’s knot
Checkpoints; 1Two double overhand knots securing each other as the standing parts of the rope are pulled apart.
2 Four rope parts on one side of the knot form two "x" patterns, four rope parts on the other side of the knot are parallel. 3 Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.
FIGURE-EIGHT BEND used to join the ends of two ropes of equal or unequal diameter within 5-mm difference (Figure 4-9). STEPS 1 grasp the top of a 2-foot bight. 2 with the other hand, grasp the running end (short end) and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end. 3 place the running end through the loop just formed creating an in-line figure eight. 4 route the running end of the other ripe back through the figure eight starting from the original rope’s running end. Trace the original knot to the standing end. 5 remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot down.
Figure 4-9 Figure-eight bend
Checkpoints; 1 there is a figure eight with two ropes running side by side. 2 the running ends are on opposite sides of the knot. 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
WATER KNOT used to attach two webbing ends (Figure 4-10). It is also called a ring bend, overhand retrace, or tape knot. It is used in runners and harnesses and is a joining knot. STEPS 1. Tie an overhand knot in one of the ends. 2 feed the other end back through the knot, following the path of the first rope in reverse. 3 draw tight and pull all of the slack out of the knot. The remaining tails must extend at least 4 inches beyond the knot in both directions.
Figure 4-10 Water knot
Checkpoints; 1 there are two overhand knots, one retracing the other. 2 there is no slack in the knot, and the working ends come out of the knot in opposite directions. 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
BOWLINE used to tie the end of a rope around an anchor. It may also be used to tie a single fixed loop in the end of a rope (Figure 4-11). It is an anchor knot. STEPS 1 bring the working end of the rope around the anchor, from right to left (as the climber faces the anchor). 2 form an overhand loop in the standing part of the rope (on the climber’s right) toward the anchor. 3 reach through the loop and pull up a bight. 4 place the working end of the rope (on the climber’s left) through the bight, and bring it back onto itself. Now dress the knot down. 5 form an overhand knot with the tail from the bight.
Figure 4-11 Bowline knot
Checkpoints; 1 the bight is locked into place by a loop. 2 the short portion of the bight is on the inside and on the loop around the anchor (or inside the fixed loop). 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after tying the overhand safety.
ROUND TURN AND TWO HALF HITCHES used to tie the end of a rope to an anchor, and it must have constant tension (Figure 4-12). It is an anchor knot. STEP 1. Route the rope around the anchor from right to left and wrap down (must have two wraps in the rear of the anchor, and one in the front). Run the loop around the object to provide 360-degree contact, distributing the load over the anchor. STEP 2. Bring the working end of the rope left to right and over the standing part, forming a half hitch (first half hitch). STEP 3. Repeat STEP 2 (last half hitch has a 4 inch pigtail). STEP 4. Dress the knot down.
Figure 4-12 Round turn and two half hitches
Checkpoints; (1) A complete round turn should exist around the anchor with no crosses. (2) Two half hitches should be held in place by a diagonal locking bar with no less than a 4-inch pigtail remaining.
CLOVE HITCH is an anchor knot that can be used in the middle of the rope as well as at the end (Figure 4-14). The knot must have constant tension on it once tied to prevent slipping. It can be used as either an anchor or middle of the rope knot, depending on how it is tied.
(1) Middle of the Rope. STEP 1. Hold rope in both hands, palms down with hands together. Slide the left hand to the left from 20 to 25 centimeters. STEP 2. Form a loop away from and back toward the right. STEP 3. Slide the right hand from 20 to 25 centimeters to the right. Form a loop inward and back to the left hand. STEP 4. Place the left loop on top of the right loop. Place both loops over the anchor and pull both ends of the rope in opposite directions. The knot is tied.
(2) End of the Rope.
Note: For instructional purposes, assume that the anchor is horizontal. STEP 1. Place 76 centimeters of rope over the top of the anchor. Hold the standing end in the left hand. With the right hand, reach under the horizontal anchor, grasp the working end, and bring it inward. STEP 2. Place the working end of the rope over the standing end (to form a loop). Hold the loop in the left hand. Place the working end over the anchor from 20 to 25 centimeters to the left of the loop. STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down to the left hand side of the loop under the anchor. Grasp the working end of the rope. Bring the working end up and outward. STEP 4. Dress down the knot.
Figure 4-14 Clove hitches
Checkpoints; (1) the knot has two round turns around the anchor with a diagonal locking bar. (2) The locking bar is facing 90 degrees from the direction of pull. (3) The ends exit l80 degrees from each other. (4) The knot has more than a 4-inch pigtail remaining.
FIGURE-EIGHT RETRACE (REROUTED FIGURE-EIGHT) produces the same result as a figure-eight loop. However, by tying the knot in a retrace, it can be used to fasten the rope to trees or to places where the loop cannot be used (Figure 4-13). It is also called a rerouted figure-eight and is an anchor knot. STEP 1. Use a length of rope long enough to go around the anchor, leaving enough rope to work with. STEP 2. Tie a figure-eight knot in the standing part of the rope, leaving enough rope to go around the anchor. To tie a figure-eight knot form a loop in the rope, wrap the working end around the standing part, and route the working end through the loop. The finished knot is dressed loosely. STEP 3. Take the working end around the anchor point. STEP 4. With the working end, insert the rope back through the loop of the knot in reverse. STEP 5. Keep the original figure eight as the outside rope and retrace the knot around the wrap and back to the long-standing part. STEP 6. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers; dress the knot down.
Figure 4-13 Figure-eight retrace
Checkpoints; (1) A figure eight with a doubled rope running side by side, forming a fixed loop around a fixed object or harness. (2) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
WIREMAN’S KNOT forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope (Figure 4-15). It is a middle rope knot.
STEP 1. When tying this knot, face the anchor that the tie-off system will be tied to. Take up the slack from the anchor, and wrap two turns around the left hand (palm up) from left to right. STEP 2. A loop of 30 centimeters is taken up in the second round turn to create the fixed loop of the knot. STEP 3. Name the wraps from the palm to the fingertips: heel, palm, and fingertip. STEP 4. Secure the palm wrap with the right thumb and forefinger, and place it over the heel wrap. STEP 5. Secure the heel wrap and place it over the fingertip wrap. STEP 6. Secure the fingertip wrap and place it over the palm wrap. STEP 7. Secure the palm wrap and pull up to form a fixed loop. STEP 8. Dress the knot down by pulling on the fixed loop and the two working ends. STEP 9. Pull the working ends apart to finish the knot.
Figure 4-15 Wireman’s knot
Checkpoints; (1) The completed knot should have four separate bights locking down on themselves with the fixed loop exiting from the top of the knot and laying toward the near side anchor point. (2) Both ends should exit opposite each other without any bends.
DIRECTIONAL FIGURE-EIGHT forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope that lays back along the standing part of the rope (Figure 4-16). It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Face the far side anchor so that when the knot is tied, it lays inward. STEP 2. Lay the rope from the far side anchor over the left palm. Make one wrap around the palm. STEP 3. With the wrap thus formed, tie a figure-eight knot around the standing part that leads to the far side anchor. STEP 4. When dressing the knot down, the tail and the bight must be together.
Figure 4-16 Directional figure-eight
Checkpoints; (1) The loop should be large enough to accept a carabiner but no larger than a helmet-size loop. (2) The tail and bight must be together. (3) The figure eight is tied tightly. (4) The bight in the knot faces back toward the near side.
BOWLINE-ON-A-BIGHT (TWO-LOOP BOWLINE) used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about twice as long as the finished loops will be.
STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot on a bight. STEP 3. Hold the overhand knot in the left hand so that the bight is running down and outward. STEP 4. Grasp the bight with the right hand; fold it back over the overhand knot so that the overhand knot goes through the bight. STEP 5. From the end (apex) of the bight, follow the bight back to where it forms the cross in the overhand knot. Grasp the two ropes that run down and outward and pull up, forming two loops. STEP 6. Pull the two ropes out of the overhand knot and dress the knot down. STEP 7. A final dress is required: grasp the ends of the two fixed loops and pull, spreading them apart to ensure the loops do not slip.
Figure 4-17 Bowline-on-a-bight
Checkpoints; (1) there are two fixed loops that will not slip. (2) There are no twists in the knot. (3) A double loop is held in place by a bight.
TWO-LOOP FIGURE-EIGHT used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure 4-18.) It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Using a doubled rope, form an 18-inch bight in the left hand with the running end facing to the left. STEP 2. Grasp the bight with the right hand and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end in a counterclockwise direction. STEP 3. With the working end, form another bight and place that bight through the loop just formed in the left hand. STEP 4. Hold the bight with the left hand, and place the original bight (moving toward the left hand) over the knot. STEP 5. Dress the knot down.
Figure 4-18 Two-loop figure-eight
Checkpoints; (1) There is a double figure-eight knot with two loops that share a common locking bar. (2) The two loops must be adjustable by means of a common locking bar. (3) The common locking bar is on the bottom of the double figure-eight knot.
FIGURE-EIGHT LOOP (FIGURE-EIGHT-ON-A-BIGHT) used to form a fixed loop in a rope (Figure 4-19). It is a middle of the rope knot. STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about as large as the diameter of the desired loop.
STEP 2. With the bight as the working end, form a loop in rope (standing part). STEP 3. Wrap the working end around the standing part 360 degrees and feed the working end through the loop. Dress the knot tightly.
Figure 4-19 Figure-eight loop
Checkpoints; (1) The loop is the desired size. (2) The ropes in the loop are parallel and do not cross over each other.
(3) The knot is tightly dressed.
PRUSIK KNOT used to put a moveable rope on a fixed rope such as a Prusik ascent or a tightening system. This knot can be tied as a middle or end of the rope Prusik. It is a specialty knot.
(1) Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik. The middle-of-the-rope Prusik knot can be tied with a short rope to a long rope as follows (Figure 4-20.): STEP 1. Double the short rope, forming a bight, with the working ends even. Lay it over the long rope so that the closed end of the bight is 12 inches below the long rope and the remaining part of the rope (working ends) is the closest to the climber; spread the working end apart. STEP 2. Reach down through the 12-inch bight. Pull up both of the working ends and lay them over the long rope. Repeat this process making sure that the working ends pass in the middle of the first two wraps. Now there are four wraps and a locking bar working across them on the long rope. STEP 3. Dress the wraps and locking bar down to ensure they are tight and not twisted. Tying an overhand knot with both ropes will prevent the knot from slipping during periods of variable tension.
Figure 4-20 Middle-of-the-rope Prusik
(2) End-of-the-Rope Prusik (Figure 4-21). STEP 1. Using an arm’s length of rope, and place it over the long rope.
STEP 2. Form a complete round turn in the rope. STEP 3. Cross over the standing part of the short rope with the working end of the short rope. STEP 4. Lay the working end under the long rope. STEP 5. Form a complete round turn in the rope, working back toward the middle of the knot. STEP 6. There are four wraps and a locking bar running across them on the long rope. Dress the wraps and locking bar down. Ensure they are tight, parallel, and not twisted. STEP 7. Finish the knot with a bowline to ensure that the Prusik knot will not slip out during periods of varying tension.
Figure 4-21 End-of-the-rope Prusik knot
Checkpoints; (1) Four wraps with a locking bar. (2) The locking bar faces the climber. (3) The knot is tight and dressed down with no ropes twisted or crossed. (4) Other than a finger Prusik, the knot should contain an overhand or bowline to prevent slipping.
BACHMAN KNOT provides a means of using a makeshift mechanized ascender (Figure 4-22). It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. Find the middle of a utility rope and insert it into a carabiner. STEP 2. Place the carabiner and utility rope next to a long climbing rope. STEP 3. With the two ropes parallel from the carabiner, make two or more wraps around the climbing rope and through the inside portion of the carabiner. Note: The rope can be tied into an etrier (stirrup) and used as a Prusik-friction principle ascender.
Checkpoints; (1) The bight of the climbing rope is at the top of the carabiner. (2) The two ropes run parallel without twisting or crossing. (3) Two or more wraps are made around the long climbing rope and through the inside portion of the carabiner.
Figure 4-22 Bachman knot
BOWLINE
12-42. User the bowline to tie a temporary eye in the end of a line. A bowline neither slips nor jams and unties easily. An example of a temporary use is that of tying a heaving line or messenger to a hawser and throwing it to a pier where line handlers can pull the hawser to the pier, using the heaving line or messenger.
12-43. To tie a bowline (Figure 12-15), hold the standing part with your left hand and the running end with your right. Flip an overhand loop in the standing part, and hold the standing part and loop with the thumb and fingers of your left hand. Using your right hand, pass the running end up through the loop, under the standing part, and down through the loop. Its strength is 60 percent.
Figure 12-15. Tying a Bowline
Bowline on a Bight
12-44. A bowline on a bight gives two loops instead of one, neither of which slips. It can be used for the same purpose as a boatswain's chair. It does not leave both hands free, but its twin, nonslipping loops form a comfortable seat. Use the bowline on a bight when:
Strength (greater than a single bowline) is necessary.
A loop is needed at some point in a line other than at the end.
The end of a line is not accessible.
The bowline is easily untied and can be tied at the end of a line by doubling the line for a short section.
12-45. To tie a bowline on a bight (see Figure 12-16) double the line, form an overhand loop, and put the end of the bight through the loop. Put your hand through the bight, take hold of the bight under the loop, and pull it through the first bight to tighten the knot.
Figure 12-16 Typing a Bowline on a Bight
FRENCH BOWLINE
12-46. Use a French bowline as a sling for lifting an injured person. For this purpose, one loop is used as a seat and the other loop is put around the body under the arms, then the knot is drawn tight at the chest. Even an unconscious person can ride up safely in a properly secured French bowline, because his weight keeps the two loops tight so that he will not fall out. It follows, though, that it is necessary to take care not to allow the loop under his arms to catch on any projections. Also use the French bowline where a person is working alone and needs both hands free. The two loops of the knot can be adjusted to the required size. Figure 12-17 shows the step-by-step procedure for tying the French bowline.
Figure 12-17 Typing a French Bowline
BOWLINE-ON-A-COIL is an expedient tie-in used by climbers when a climbing harness is not available (Figure 4-23). It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. With the running end, place 3 feet of rope over your right shoulder. The running end is to the back of the body. STEP 2. Starting at the bottom of your rib cage, wrap the standing part of the rope around your body and down in a clockwise direction four to eight times. STEP 3. With the standing portion of the rope in your left hand, make a clockwise loop toward the body. The standing portion is on the bottom. STEP 4. Ensuring the loop does not come uncrossed, bring it up and under the coils between the rope and your body. STEP 5. Using the standing part, bring a bight up through the loop. Grasp the running end of the rope with the right hand. Pass it through the bight from right to left and back on itself. STEP 6. Holding the bight loosely, dress the knot down by pulling on the standing end. STEP 7. Safety the bowline with an overhand around the top, single coil. Then, tie an overhand around all coils, leaving a minimum 4-inch pigtail.
Checkpoints; (1) A minimum of four wraps, not crossed, with a bight held in place by a loop. (2) The loop must be underneath all wraps. (3) A minimum 4-inch pigtail after the second overhand safety is tied. (4) Must be centered on the mid-line of the body.
Figure 4-23 Bowline-on-a-coil
THREE-LOOP BOWLINE used to form three fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure 4-24). It is used in a self-equalizing anchor system. It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. Form an approximate 24-inch bight. STEP 2. With the right thumb facing toward the body, form a doubled loop in the standing part by turning the wrist clockwise. Lay the loops to the right. STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down through the loops and pull up a doubled bight from the standing part of the rope. STEP 4. Place the running end (bight) of the rope (on the left) through the doubled bight from left to right and bring it back on itself. Hold the running end loosely and dress the knot down by pulling on the standing parts. STEP 5. Safety it off with a doubled overhand knot.
Figure 4-24 Three-loop bowline
Checkpoints; (1) There are two bights held in place by two loops. (2) The bights form locking bars around the standing parts. (3) The running end (bight) must be on the inside of the fixed loops. (4) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the double overhand safety knot is tied.
FIGURE-EIGHT SLIP KNOT forms an adjustable bight in a rope (Figure 4-25). It is a specialty knot.
STEP 1. Form a 12-inch bight in the end of the rope. STEP 2. Hold the center of the bight in the right hand. Hold the two parallel ropes from the bight in the left hand about 12 inches up the rope. STEP 3. With the center of the bight in the right hand, twist two complete turns clockwise. STEP 4. Reach through the bight and grasp the long, standing end of the rope. Pull another bight (from the long standing end) back through the original bight. STEP 5. Pull down on the short working end of the rope and dress the knot down. STEP 6. If the knot is to be used in a transport tightening system, take the working end of the rope and form a half hitch around the loop of the figure eight knot.
Figure 4-25 Figure-eight slip knot
Checkpoints; (1) the knot is in the shape of a figure eight. (2) Both ropes of the bight pass through the same loop of the figure eight. (3) The sliding portion of the rope is the long working end of the rope.
TRANSPORT KNOT (OVERHAND SLIP KNOT/MULE KNOT) used to secure the transport tightening system (Figure 4-26). It is simply an overhand slip knot. STEP 1. Pass the running end of the rope around the anchor point passing it back under the standing portion (leading to the far side anchor) forming a loop. STEP 2. Form a bight with the running end of the rope. Pass over the standing portion and down through the loop and dress it down toward the anchor point. STEP 3. Secure the knot by tying a half hitch around the standing portion with the bight.
Figure 4-26 Transport knot
Check Points; (1) There is a single overhand slip knot. (2) The knot is secured using a half hitch on a bight.
(3) The bight is a minimum of 12 inches long.
KLEIMHIEST KNOT provides a moveable, easily adjustable, high-tension knot capable of holding extremely heavy loads while being pulled tight (Figure 4-27). It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1. Using a utility rope or webbing offset the ends by 12 inches. With the ends offset, find the center of the rope and form a bight. Lay the bight over a horizontal rope. STEP 2. Wrap the tails of the utility rope around the horizontal rope back toward the direction of pull. Wrap at least four complete turns. STEP 3. With the remaining tails of the utility rope, pass them through the bight (see STEP 1). STEP 4. Join the two ends of the tail with a joining knot. STEP 5. Dress the knot down tightly so that all wraps are touching. Note: Spectra should not be used for the Kleimhiest knot. It has a low melting point and tends to slip .
Figure 4-27 Kleimhiest knot
Checkpoints; (1) the bight is opposite the direction of pull. (2) All wraps are tight and touching. (3) The ends of the utility rope are properly secured with a joining knot.
FROST KNOT used when working with webbing (Figure 4-28). It is used to create the top loop of an etrier. It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1. Lap one end (a bight) of webbing over the other about 10 to 12 inches. STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot with the newly formed triple-strand webbing; dress tightly.
Figure 4-28 Frost knot
Checkpoints; (1) the tails of the webbing run in opposite directions. (2) Three strands of webbing are formed into a tight overhand knot. (3) There is a bight and tail exiting the top of the overhand knot.
GIRTH HITCH used to attach a runner to an anchor or piece of equipment (Figure 4-29). It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1: Form a bight. STEP 2: Bring the runner back through the bight. STEP 3: Cinch the knot tightly.
Figure 4-29 Girth hitch
Checkpoint; (1) Two wraps exist with a locking bar running across the wraps. (2) The knot is dressed tightly.
MUNTER HITCH when used in conjunction with a pear-shaped locking carabiner, is used to form a mechanical belay (Figure 4-30). STEP 1. Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart. STEP 2. With the right hand, form a loop away from the body toward the left hand. Hold the loop with the left hand. STEP 3. With the right hand, place the rope that comes from the bottom of the loop over the top of the loop. STEP 4. Place the bight that has just been formed around the rope into the pear shaped carabiner. Lock the locking mechanism.
Check Points; (1) A bight passes through the carabiner, with the closed end around the standing or running part of the rope. (2) The carabiner is locked.
Figure 4-30 Munter hitch
GUARDE KNOT (ratchet knot, alpine clutch) is a special purpose knot primarily used for hauling systems or rescue (Figure 4-32). The knot works in only one direction and cannot be reversed while under load.
STEP 1. Place a bight of rope into the two anchored carabiners (works best with two like carabiners, preferably ovals). STEP 2. Take a loop of rope from the non-load side and place it down into the opposite cararabiner so that the rope comes out between the two carabiners.
Figure 4-32 Guarde knot
Check Points; (1) when properly dressed, rope can only be pulled in one direction. (2) The knot will not fail when placed under load.
SHEET OR BECKET BEND
Use a single sheet or becket bend to tie two lines of unequal size together and to tie a line to an eye. Always use a double sheet or becket bend to tie the gantline to a boatswain's chair. The single sheet or becket bend will draw tight, but will loosen when the line is slackened. The single sheet or becket bend is stronger than the square knot, with a strength of 55 percent, and is more easily untied than the square knot.
To tie a single sheet or becket bend (Figure 12-14), take a bight in the larger of the two lines. Using the smaller of the two lines, put its end up through the bight. Then put it around the standing part of the larger line first because it will have the strain on it and then around the end of the larger line. Next put the end of the smaller line under its standing part. The strain on the standing part will hold the end. Notice in the double sheet or becket bend that the end of the smaller line goes under its standing part both times.
Figure 12-14 Tying the Single and Double Sheet or Becket Bend
DOUBLE CARRICK BEND
A double carrick bend with its ends seized (Figure 12-18) is recommended for tying together two hawsers. Even after a heavy strain, it is easy to untie because it never draws up. Its strength is 56 percent. However, a double carrick will draw up if the ends are not seized.
Figure 12-18 Tying the Double Carrick Bend
HALF HITCH
Use the half hitch to back up other knots, but tie with the short end of the line. Never tie two half hitches by themselves. Instead, take two round turns so that the strain will be on the line, not the hitches, and then tie the hitches (Figure 12-19).
Figure 12-19 Half Hitch
CLOVE HITCH
The best knot for tying a line to a ring, a spar, or anything that is round is a clove hitch (Figure 12-20). It will not jam or pull out. Its strength is 55 to 60 percent.
Figure 12-20 Clove Hitch
STOPPER HITCH
A possible defect of a clove hitch is that it can slide along the round object to which it is tied. To prevent this, use a stopper hitch (Figure 12-21), commonly called a rolling hitch. When tying, make a turn around the line with the stopper (first view). Pull tight and take another turn. This one must cross the first turn and then pass between the first turn and the stopper (second view). This completes the stopper hitch itself, but it must be stopped off in one of two ways.
Figure 12-21 Stopper Hitch
You may make two or more turns with the lay of the line and then seize the stopper to the line with marline. Another method is to tie a half hitch directly above the rolling hitch (third view), and then take a couple of turns against the lay, and seize the stopper to the line.
STAGE HITCH
Use a stage hitch (Figure 12-22) for working over the side of a vessel. A stage hitch consists of a plank with a wooden horn attached at a right angle to the plank near each end to keep it away from the side. Note that two parts of the line go under the plank. Therefore, the line supports the plank, as well as the horns. This gives more protection to persons working on the stage.
MONKEY FIST
The monkey fist (Figure 12-23) is tied at the end of a heaving line and a weight is put in it so that it can be thrown for a distance with some ease and accuracy. The monkey fist consists of three sets of turns taken at right angles to each other. For clarity, Figure 12-23 shows only three turns in each set; four turns per set are more likely to be used. To tie a monkey fist, start as in view 1, taking a set of turns around your hand. Then slip this set off your hand, hold it as shown in view 2, and pass the running end over your thumb and under and over the first set. Complete this set of turns. Put the last set around the second and through the first as shown in view 3. Note that the first turn of the last set locks the first two sets in place.
Figure 12-22 Stage Hitch
Figure 12-23 Monkey Fist
After completing the third set of turns, insert a 5- to 10-ounce weight in the monkey fist. Tighten the turns by working the slack back towards the standing part. In a properly tied monkey fist, the ends come out at opposite corners as shown in view 4. To complete the monkey fist, put a half hitch on the standing part with the running end and seize it to the standing part.
SPLICING THREE-STRAND FIBER LINE
Splicing is a method of permanently joining the ends of two lines or of bending-a line back on itself to form a permanent loop or an eye. If two lines are going to be spliced, strands on an end of each line are unlaid, and the strands are interwoven with those of the standing part of the line. Small stuff can be spliced without need of a fid. A fid is a tapering length of hickory or some other hard wood used in splicing larger lines. A knife is needed to cut off the ends of the strands. This paragraph explains and shows the back, short, and eye splices.
BACK SPLICE WITH A CROWN KNOT
Where the end of a fiber line is to be spliced to prevent unlaying and a slight enlargement of the end is not objectionable, use a back splice. This splice is usually done on small stuff. To make this splice, do the following:
Step 1. Unlay six turns of the line (Figure 12-24). Step 2. To start the crown knot, form a bight with the left strand and lay the bitter end of the strand between the right and center strand. Then lay the center strand over the running end of the left strand. Take the right strand under the running end of the left strand, over the running end of the center strand, and back through the bight of the left strand. Then take all the slack out of the strands and gently pull the strands tight (Figure 12-25). Step 3. Start the left strand; go over one strand, tuck under the next one, and pull the strand tight (Figure 12-26). Step 4. Turn the line and tuck each strand. Three complete tucks are required for each strand (Figure 12-27). Step 5. Trim off the ends of the strands. Then lay the splice on the deck, put your foot on it, and roll it back and forth. This will tighten up and smooth out the splice.
Figure 12-24. Making a Back Splice,
Step 1
Figure 12-25. Making a Back Splice,
Step 2
Figure 12-26. Making a Back Splice,
Step 3
Figure 12-27. Making a Back Splice,
Step 4
SHORT SPLICE
The short splice (Figure 12-28) is as strong as the rope of which it is made. However, the short splice will increase the diameter of the line at the splice and can be used only where this increase in diameter will not affect the operation. Use the short splice to repair damaged lines. The damaged parts of the line are cut out and the short splice rejoins the line. Only lines of the same size can be joined together using the short splice.
Do the following to make a short splice (see also Figure 12-28): Step 1. Untwist one end of each line five complete turns. Whip or tape each strand. Bring these strands tightly together so that each strand of one line alternates with a strand of the other line. Put a temporary whipping on the lines where they join to keep them from suddenly coming apart. Do this with small lines until you are skilled enough to hold them together while you tuck. Step 2. Starting with either line, tuck a round of strands in the other line. Then, using the strands of the other line, tuck a round in the first line. These first two rounds of tucks are expressed: "Tuck in one direction. Reverse and tuck in the other direction." When making a round of tucks, regardless of the direction, face where the lines are butted so to always tuck from right to left. Pull each strand as required to tighten the center of the splice. Step 3. Tuck two more rounds in each direction. After tucking in one direction and reversing and tucking in the other direction, pull the strands as required to strengthen the center of the splice. When finished with three rounds of tucks in each direction, cut off any excess length on the strands. To have a smoother splice, you may cut off one-third of the circumference of each strand before making the second round of tucks and another one-third cut before the third round. Step 4. When the splice is completed, cut off the excess strands as before. Lay the splice on the deck and roll it with your foot to smooth out and tighten the splice.
Figure 12-28. Making a Short Splice
EYE SPLICE
When a loop is to be permanent, put in the line with an eye splice, which has a strength of 90 to 95 percent. Compare this with the strength of a bowline of 60 percent.
Unlay (untwist) the strands four to five turns and splice them into the standing part of the line by tucking the unlaid strands from the ends into the standing part. Whip or tape the ends of the strands. An original round of tucks with two more complete rounds is enough because, if the line parts, it will likely part in the eye rather than in the splice. For this reason, three rounds are as effective as a greater number. Do the following to make an eye splice:
Note: Always whip or tape the ends of the strands before starting; otherwise they will unlay. Seize large lines at the point where unlaying stops to avoid trouble working with them. With up to 21 threads, you can open the strands in the standing part with your fingers. Use the fid for larger lines. Step 1. Figure 12-29 shows how to make the first two tucks. Separate the strands in the end and hold them up as shown. Place the three unlaid strands against the standing part where they will be tucked, forming an eye the size you need. Always tuck the middle strand facing you first. Put a reverse twist on the standing part so that you can raise the strand under which you will make the first tuck. Pick up the strand that you will tuck, and tuck it under the strand raised. Always tuck from right to left or with the lay of the line. Step 2. Be sure to keep the next strand on the side of the line that is towards you. Tuck that one next. Put it over the strand under which the first one is tucked, and tuck it under the next one (Figure 12-30).
Step 3. Now turn the incomplete eye over as shown. Check the third strand to be sure that it has not unlaid more. If it has, twist it back to where it should be. Take the last strand and put it across the standing part, turn its end back toward you, put it under the strand over which the first tuck was made, and tuck it in a direction toward you. This results in the third tuck going to where the second came out and coming out where the first went in. After this round of tucks, there is a strand in each lay (Figure 12-31).
Figure 12-29. Selecting the Middle
Strand
Figure 12-30. First Two Tucks in an
Eye Splice
Figure 12-31. Last Tucks of an Eye Splice
Pull each of the three strands tucked backward at about a 45-degree angle to the eye to tighten the splice.
The first round of tucks is the key to making perfect eye splices. Starting with any strand, simply tuck each one over and under two more times. None of the last two rounds of tucks requires "over and back." However, always tuck from right to left. As required, pull the tucked strands away from the eye and twist the splice and line to tighten them. After finishing the splice, bend the end of each strand back toward the splice and, using a knife, cut it off, up, and away, leaving a one-fourth inch tip.
RAPPEL SEAT
The rappel seat is an improvised seat rappel harness made of rope (Figure 4-31). It usually requires a sling rope 14 feet or longer. STEP 1. Find the middle of the sling rope and make a bight. STEP 2. Decide which hand will be used as the brake hand and place the bight on the opposite hip. STEP 3. Reach around behind and grab a single strand of rope. Bring it around the waist to the front and tie two overhands on the other strand of rope, thus creating a loop around the waist. STEP 4. Pass the two ends between the legs, ensuring they do not cross. STEP 5. Pass the two ends up under the loop around the waist, bisecting the pocket flaps on the trousers. Pull up on the ropes, tightening the seat. STEP 6. From rear to front, pass the two ends through the leg loops creating a half hitch on both hips. STEP 7. Bring the longer of the two ends across the front to the nonbrake hand hip and secure the two ends with a square knot safetied with overhand knots. Tuck any excess rope in the pocket below the square knot.
Figure 4-31 Rappel seat
Check Points; (1) There are two overhand knots in the front. (2) The ropes are not crossed between the legs.
(3) A half hitch is formed on each hip. (4) Seat is secured with a square knot with overhand safeties on the non-brake hand side. (5) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safeties are tied.
PRESEWN HARNESSES; Although improvised harnesses are made from readily available materials and take little space in the pack or pocket, presewn harnesses provide other aspects that should be considered. No assembly is required, which reduces preparation time for roped movement. All presewn harnesses provide a range of adjustability. These harnesses have a fixed buckle that, when used correctly, will not fail before the nylon materials connected to it. However, specialized equipment, such as a presewn harness, reduce the flexibility of gear. Presewn harness are bulky, also.
a. Seat Harness. Many presewn seat harnesses are available with many different qualities separating them, including cost.
(1) The most notable difference will be the amount and placement of padding. The more padding the higher the price and the more comfort. Gear loops sewn into the waist belt on the sides and in the back are a common feature and are usually strong enough to hold quite a few carabiners and or protection. The gear loops will vary in number from one model/manufacturer to another.
(2) Although most presewn seat harnesses have a permanently attached belay loop connecting the waist belt and the leg loops, the climbing rope should be run around the waist belt and leg loop connector. The presewn belay loop adds another link to the chain of possible failure points and only gives one point of security whereas running the rope through the waist belt and leg loop connector provides two points of contact.
(3) If more than two men will be on the rope, connect the middle position(s) to the rope with a carabiner routed the same as stated in the previous paragraph.
(4) Many manufactured seat harnesses will have a presewn loop of webbing on the rear. Although this loop is much stronger than the gear loops, it is not for a belay anchor. It is a quick attachment point to haul an additional rope.
b. Chest Harness. The chest harness will provide an additional connecting point for the rope, usually in the form of a carabiner loop to attach a carabiner and rope to. This type of additional connection will provide a comfortable hanging position on the rope, but otherwise provides no additional protection from injury during a fall (if the seat harness is fitted correctly).
(1) A chest harness will help the climber remain upright on the rope during rappelling or ascending a fixed rope, especially while wearing a heavy pack. (If rappelling or ascending long or multiple pitches, let the pack hang on a drop cord below the feet and attached to the harness tie-in point.)
(2) The presewn chest harnesses available commercially will invariably offer more comfort or performance features, such as padding, gear loops, or ease of adjustment, than an improvised chest harness.
c. Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one assembly. This is the safest harness to use as it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the chest, reducing the chance of an inverted position when hanging on the rope. This is especially helpful when moving on ropes with heavy packs. A full-body harness only affects the body position when hanging on the rope and will not prevent head injury in a fall.
CAUTION
This type of harness does not prevent the climber from falling head first. Body position during a fall is affected only by the forces that generated the fall, and this type of harness promotes an upright position only when hanging on the rope from the attachment point.
IMPROVISED HARNESSES
Without the use of a manufactured harness, many methods are still available for attaching oneself to a rope. Harnesses can be improvised using rope or webbing and knots.
a. Swami Belt. The swami belt is a simple, belt-only harness created by wrapping rope or webbing around the waistline and securing the ends. One-inch webbing will provide more comfort. Although an effective swami belt can be assembled with a minimum of one wrap, at least two wraps are recommended for comfort, usually with approximately ten feet of material. The ends are secured with an appropriate knot.
b. Bowline-on-a-Coil. Traditionally, the standard method for attaching oneself to the climbing rope was with a bowline-on-a-coil around the waist. The extra wraps distribute the force of a fall over a larger area of the torso than a single bowline would, and help prevent the rope from riding up over the rib cage and under the armpits. The knot must be tied snugly around the narrow part of the waist, just above the bony portions of the hips (pelvis). Avoid crossing the wraps by keeping them spread over the waist area. "Sucking in the gut" a bit when making the wraps will ensure a snug fit.
(1) The bowline-on-a-coil can be used to tie-in to the end of the rope (Figure 6-19). The end man should have a minimum of four wraps around the waist before completing the knot.
Figure 6-19 Tying-in with a bowline-on-a-coil
(2) The bowline-on-a-coil is a safe and effective method for attaching to the rope when the terrain is low-angled, WITHOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF A SEVERE FALL. When the terrain becomes steeper, a fall will generate more force on the climber and this will be felt through the coils of this type of attachment. A hard fall will cause the coils to ride up against the ribs. In a severe fall, any tie-in around the waist only could place a "shock load" on the climber's lower back. Even in a relatively short fall, if the climber ends up suspended in mid-air and unable to regain footing on the rock, the rope around the waist can easily cut off circulation and breathing in a relatively short time.
(3) The climbing harness distributes the force of a fall over the entire pelvic region, like a parachute harness. Every climber should know how to tie some sort of improvised climbing harness from sling material. A safe, and comfortable, seat/chest combination harness can be tied from one-inch tubular nylon.
c. Improvised Seat Harness. A seat harness can be tied from a length of webbing approximately 25 feet long (Figure 6-20).
(1) Locate the center of the rope. Off to one side, tie two fixed loops approximately 6 inches apart (overhand loops). Adjust the size of the loops so they fit snugly around the thigh. The loops are tied into the sling "off center" so the remaining ends are different lengths. The short end should be approximately 4 feet long (4 to 5 feet for larger individuals).
(2) Slip the leg loops over the feet and up to the crotch, with the knots to the front. Make one complete wrap around the waist with the short end, wrapping to the outside, and hold it in place on the hip. Keep the webbing flat and free of twists when wrapping.
(3) Make two to three wraps around the waist with the long end in the opposite direction (wrapping to the outside), binding down on the short end to hold it in place. Grasping both ends, adjust the waist wraps to a snug fit. Connect the ends with the appropriate knot between the front and one side so you will be able to see what you are doing.
Figure 6-20 Improvised seat and chest harness
d. Improvised Chest Harness. The chest harness can be tied from rope or webbing, but remember that with webbing, wider is better and will be more comfortable when you load this harness. Remember as you tie this harness that the remaining ends will need to be secured so choose the best length. Approximately 6 to 10 feet usually works.
(1) Tie the ends of the webbing together with the appropriate knot, making a sling 3 to 4 feet long. (2) Put a single twist into the sling, forming two loops. (3) Place an arm through each loop formed by the twist, just as you would put on a jacket, and drape the sling over the shoulders. The twist, or cross, in the sling should be in the middle of the back. (4) Join the two loops at the chest with a carabiner. The water knot should be set off to either side for easy inspection (if a pack is to be worn, the knot will be uncomfortable if it gets between the body and the pack). The chest harness should fit just loose enough to allow necessary clothing and not to restrict breathing or circulation. Adjust the size of the sling if necessary.
e. Improvised Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one assembly.
(1) The full-body harness is the safest harness because it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the chest, reducing the chance of an inverted hanging position on the rope. This is especially helpful when moving on ropes with heavy packs. A full-body harness affects the body position only when hanging on the rope.
CAUTION
A full-body harness does not prevent falling head first; body position in a fall is caused by the forces that caused the fall.
(2) Although running the rope through the carabiner of the chest harness does, in effect, create a type of full-body harness, it is not a true full-body harness until the chest harness and the seat harness are connected as one piece. A true full-body harness can be improvised by connecting the chest harness to the seat harness, but not by just tying the rope into both—the two harnesses must be "fixed" as one harness. Fix them together with a short loop of webbing or rope so that the climbing rope can be connected directly to the chest harness and your weight is supported by the seat harness through the connecting material.
f. Attaching the Rope to the Improvised Harness. The attachment of the climbing rope to the harness is a CRITICAL LINK. The strength of the rope means nothing if it is attached poorly, or incorrectly, and comes off the harness in a fall. The climber ties the end of the climbing rope to the seat harness with an appropriate knot. If using a chest harness, the standing part of the rope is then clipped into the chest harness carabiner. The seat harness absorbs the main force of the fall, and the chest harness helps keep the body upright.
CAUTION
The knot must be tied around all the waist wraps and the 6-inch length of webbing between the leg loops.
(1) A middleman must create a fixed loop to tie in to. A rethreaded figure-eight loop tied on a doubled rope or the three loop bowline can be used. If using the three loop bowline, ensure the end, or third loop formed in the knot, is secured around the tie-in loops with an overhand knot. The standing part of the rope going to the lead climber is clipped into the chest harness carabiner.
Note:
The climbing rope is not clipped into the chest harness when belaying.
(2) The choice of whether to tie-in with a bowline-on-a-coil or into a climbing harness depends entirely on the climber's judgment, and possibly the equipment available. A good rule of thumb is: "Wear a climbing harness when the potential for severe falls exists and for all travel over snow-covered glaciers because of the crevasse fall hazard."
(3) Under certain conditions many climbers prefer to attach the rope to the seat harness with a locking carabiner, rather than tying the rope to it. This is a common practice for moderate snow and ice climbing, and especially for glacier travel where wet and frozen knots become difficult to untie.
CAUTION
Because the carabiner gate may be broken or opened by protruding rocks during a fall, tie the rope directly to the harness for maximum safety.
Harnesses; Years ago climbers secured themselves to the rope by wrapping the rope around their bodies and tying a bowline-on-a-coil. While this technique is still viable the practice is no longer encouraged because of the increased possibility of injury from a fall. The bowline-on-a-coil is best left for low-angle climbing or an emergency situation where harness material is unavailable. Fitted properly, the harness should ride high on the hips and have snug leg loops to better distribute the force of a fall to the entire pelvis. This type of harness aka a seat harness provides a comfortable seat for rappelling (Figure 3-10). Any harness should have one very important feature a double-passed buckle. A safety standard that requires the waist belt to be passed over and back through the main buckle a second time. At least 2 inches of the strap should remain after double-passing the buckle. Another desirable feature is adjustable leg loops, which allows a snug fit regardless of the number of layers of clothing worn. Allowing the Marine to make a latrine call without removing the harness or untying the rope. Equipment loops are desirable for carrying pieces of equipment. A field-expedient version of the seat harness can be constructed by using 22 ft of either 1-inch or 2-inch (preferred) tubular webbing (Figure 3-10). Two double-overhand knots form the leg loops, leaving 4 to 5 ft of webbing coming from one of the leg loops. The leg loops should just fit over the clothing. Wrap the remaining webbing around the waist ensuring the first wrap is routed through the 6- to 10-in long strap between the double-overhand knots. Finish the waist wrap with a water knot tied as tightly as possible. With the remaining webbing, tie a square knot without safeties over the water knot ensuring a minimum of 4 in remains from each strand of webbing. The full body harness incorporates a chest harness with a seat harness (Figure 3-10). This type of harness has a higher tie-in point and greatly reduces the chance of flipping backward during a fall. While these harnesses are safer, they do present several disadvantages they are more restrictive, and increase the difficulty of adding or removing clothing. Most mountaineers prefer to incorporate a separate chest harness with their seat harness when warranted. A field-expedient version chest harness can be made from either two runners or a long piece of webbing. It is then attached to the seat harness with a carabiner and a length of webbing or cord.
ANCHORS
This chapter discusses different types of anchors and their application in rope systems and climbing. Proper selection and placement of anchors is a critical skill that requires a great deal of practice. Failure of any system is most likely to occur at the anchor point. If the anchor is not strong enough to support the intended load, it will fail. Failure is usually the result of poor terrain features selected for the anchor point, or the equipment used in rigging the anchor was placed improperly or in insufficient amounts.
When selecting or constructing anchors, always try to make sure the anchor is "bombproof." A bombproof anchor is stronger than any possible load that could be placed on it. An anchor that has more strength than the climbing rope is considered bombproof.
NATURAL ANCHORS
Natural anchors should be considered for use first. They are usually strong and often simple to construct with minimal use of equipment. Trees, boulders, and other terrain irregularities are already in place and simply require a method of attaching the rope. However, natural anchors should be carefully studied and evaluated for stability and strength before use. Sometimes the climbing rope is tied directly to the anchor, but under most circumstances a sling is attached to the anchor and then the climbing rope is attached to the sling with a carabiner(s). (See paragraph for slinging techniques.)
TREES
Trees are probably the most widely used of all natural anchors depending on the terrain and geographical region (Figure 5-1). However, trees must be carefully checked for suitability.
Figure 5-1 Trees used as anchors
a. In rocky terrain, treesusually have a shallow root system. This can be checked by pushing or tugging on the tree to see how well it i rooted. Anchoring as low as possible to prevent excess leverage on the tree may be necessary.
b. Use padding on soft, sap producing trees to keep sap off ropes and slings.
BOULDERS
Boulders and rock nubbins make ideal anchors (Figure 5-2). The rock can be firmly tapped with a piton hammer to ensure it is solid. Sedimentary and other loose rock formations are not stable. Talus and scree fields are an indicator that the rock in the area is not solid. All areas around the rock formation that could cut the rope or sling should be padded.
Figure 5-2 Boulders used as anchors
CHOCKSTONES
A chockstone is a rock that is wedged in a crack because the crack narrows downward (Figure 5-3). Chockstones should be checked for strength, security, and crumbling and should always be tested before use. All chockstones must be solid and strong enough to support the load. They must have maximum surface contact and be well tapered with the surrounding rock to remain in position.
Figure 5-3 Chockstones
Chockstones are often directional—they are secure when pulled in one direction but may pop out if pulled in another direction.
A creative climber can often make his own chockstone by wedging a rock into position, tying a rope to it, and clipping on a carabiner.
Slings should not be wedged between the chockstone and the rock wall since a fall could cut the webbing runner.
ROCK PROJECTIONS
Rock projections (sometimes called nubbins) often provide suitable protection (Figure 5-4). These include blocks, flakes, horns, and spikes. If rock projections are used, their firmness is important. They should be checked for cracks or weathering that may impair their firmness. If any of these signs exist, the projection should be avoided.
Figure 5-4 Rock projections
TUNNELS AND ARCHES
Tunnels and arches are holes formed in solid rock and provide one of the more secure anchor points because they can be pulled in any direction. A sling is threaded through the opening hole and secured with a joining knot or girth hitch. The load-bearing hole must be strong and free of sharp edges (pad if necessary).
BUSHES AND SHRUBS
If no other suitable anchor is available, the roots of bushes can be used by routing a rope around the bases of several bushes (Figure 5-5). As with trees, the anchoring rope is placed as low as possible to reduce leverage on the anchor. All vegetation should be healthy and well rooted to the ground.
Figure 5-5 Bushes and shrubs
SLINGING TECHNIQUES
Three methods are used to attach a sling to a natural anchor—drape, wrap, and girth. Whichever method is used, the knot is set off to the side where it will not interfere with normal carabiner movement. The carabiner gate should face away from the ground and open away from the anchor for easy insertion of the rope. When a locking carabiner cannot be used, two carabiners are used with gates opposed. Correctly opposed gates should open on opposite sides and form an "X" when opened (Figure 5-6).
Figure 5-6 Correctly opposed carabiners
Drape; drape the sling over the anchor (Figure 5-7). Untying the sling and routing it around the anchor and then retying is still considered a drape.
Figure 5-7 Drape
Wrap; wrap the sling around the anchor and connect the two ends together with a carabiner(s) or knot (Figure 5-8).
Figure 5-8 Wrap
Girth. Tie the sling around the anchor with a girth hitch (Figure 5-9). Although a girth hitch reduces the strength of the sling, it allows the sling to remain in position and not slide on the anchor.
Figure 5-9 Girth
ANCHORING WITH THE ROPE
The climbing or installation rope can be tied directly to the anchor using several different techniques. This requires less equipment, but also sacrifices some rope length to tie the anchor. The rope can be tied to the anchor using an appropriate anchor knot such as a bowline or a rerouted figure eight. Round turns can be used to help keep the rope in position on the anchor. A tensionless anchor can be used in high-load installations where tension on the attachment point and knot is undesirable.
ROPE ANCHOR
When tying the climbing or installation rope around an anchor, the knot should be placed approximately the same distance away from the anchor as the diameter of the anchor (Figure 5-10). The knot shouldn't be placed up against the anchor because this can stress and distort the knot under tension.
Figure 5-10 Rope tied to anchor with anchor knot
TENSIONLESS ANCHOR
The tensionless anchor is used to anchor the rope on high-load installations such as bridging and traversing (Figure 5-11). The wraps of the rope around the anchor absorb the tension of the installation and keep the tension off the knot and carabiner. The anchor is usually tied with a minimum of four wraps, more if necessary, to absorb the tension. A smooth anchor may require several wraps, whereas a rough barked tree might only require a few. The rope is wrapped from top to bottom. A fixed loop is placed into the end of the rope and attached loosely back onto the rope with a carabiner.
Figure 5-11 Tensionless anchor
ARTIFICIAL ANCHORS
Using artificial anchors becomes necessary when natural anchors are unavailable. The art of choosing and placing good anchors requires a great deal of practice and experience. Artificial anchors are available in many different types such as pitons, chocks, hexcentrics, and SLCDs. Anchor strength varies greatly; the type used depends on the terrain, equipment, and the load to be placed on it.
DEADMAN is any solid object buried in the ground and used as an anchor. An object that has a large surface area and some length to it works best. (A hefty timber, such as a railroad tie, would be ideal.) Large boulders can be used, as well as a bundle of smaller tree limbs or poles. As with natural anchors, ensure timbers and tree limbs are not dead or rotting and that boulders are solid. Equipment, such as skis, ice axes, snowshoes, and ruck sacks, can also be used if necessary. In extremely hard, rocky terrain (where digging a trench would be impractical, if not impossible) a variation of the deadman anchor can be constructed by building above the ground. The sling is attached to the anchor, which is set into the ground as deeply as possible. Boulders are then stacked on top of it until the anchor is strong enough for the load. Though normally not as strong as when buried, this method can work well for light-load installations as in anchoring a hand line for a stream crossing. Note: Artificial anchors, such as pitons and bolts, are not widely accepted for use in all areas because of the scars they leave on the rock and the environment. Often they are left in place and become unnatural, unsightly fixtures in the natural environment. For training planning, local laws and courtesies should be taken into consideration for each area of operation.
Equalized Anchors Snow and ice anchors must be constantly checked due to melting and changing snow or ice conditions.
(1) Whenever possible, two or more anchors should be used. While this is not always practical for intermediate anchor points on lead climbs or fixed ropes, it should be mandatory for main anchors at all belay positions, rappel points, or other fixed rope installations. (Figure 10-19 shows an example of three snow pickets configured to an equalized anchor.) (2) As with multipoint anchors on rock, two or more snow or ice anchors can be joined together with a sling rope or webbing to construct one solid, equalized anchor. A bowline on a bight tied into the climbing rope can also be used instead of sling ropes or webbing.
Figure 10-19 Equalized anchor using pickets
EQUALIZING ANCHORS are made up of more than one anchor point joined together so that the intended load is shared equally. This not only provides greater anchor strength, but also adds redundancy or backup because of the multiple points.
a. Self-equalizing Anchor. A self-equalizing anchor will maintain an equal load on each individual point as the direction of pull changes (Figure 5-18). This is sometimes used in rappelling when the route must change left or right in the middle of the rappel. A self-equalizing anchor should only be used when necessary because if any one of the individual points fail, the anchor will extend and shock-load the remaining points or even cause complete anchor failure.
Figure 5-18 Self-equalizing anchors
Pre-equalized Anchor distributes the load equally to each individual point (Figure 5-19). It is aimed in the direction of the load. A pre-equalized anchor prevents extension and shock-loading of the anchor if an individual point fails. An anchor is pre-equalized by tying an overhand or figure-eight knot in the webbing or sling.
Figure 5-19 Pre-equalized anchor
Note: When using webbing or slings, the angles of the webbing or slings directly affect the load placed on an anchor. An angle greater than 90 degrees can result in anchor failure (Figure 5-20).
Figure 5-20 Effects of angles on an anchor
SNOW AND ICE ANCHORS consist of snow pickets, flukes, deadman-type anchors, ice screws, and ice pitons. Deadman anchors can be constructed from snowshoes, skis, backpacks, sleds, or any large items.
Horseshoe or Bollard Anchor is an artificial anchor shaped generally like a horseshoe (Figure 10-18). It is formed from either ice or snow and constructed by either cutting with the ice ax or stamping with the boots. When constructed of snow, the width should not be less than 10 feet. In ice, this width may be narrowed to 2 feet, depending on the strength of the ice. The length of the bollard should be at least twice the width. The trench around the horseshoe should be stamped as deeply as possible in the snow and should be cut not less than 6 inches into the ice after all rotten ice is removed. The backside of the anchor must always be undercut to prevent the rope from sliding off and over the anchor. (1) This type of anchor is usually available and may be used for fixed ropes or rappels. It must be inspected frequently to ensure that the rope is not cutting through the snow or ice more than one-third the length of the anchor; if it is, a new anchor must be constructed in a different location. (2) A horseshoe anchor constructed in snow is always precarious, its strength depending upon the prevailing texture of the snow. For dry or wind-packed snow, the reliability of the anchor should always be suspect. The backside of the bollard can be reinforced with ice axes, pickets, or other equipment for added strength.
Figure 10-18 Horseshoe or bollard anchor
Mix gas closed circuit oxygen UBA (MK-15) LAR V Draeger/Dredger
To understand what a rebreather is and how it works, it is useful to understand how conventional scuba gear works SCUBA i.e. (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) usually heavy metal cylinders designed to withstand high pressures underwater and contain "breathing air", aka nitrox (an air-like mixture of nitrogen and oxygen). Nearly all scuba divers use a basic apparatus called open-circuit scuba. This type of system was first introduced to recreational divers by Cousteau and employs a compressed gas supply and a demand regulator from which the diver breathes. The exhaust gas is discarded in the form of bubbles with each breath, hence the term "open-circuit". Open-circuit scuba is inherently inefficient: The air around us is about 79 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen (with tiny amounts of a few other gases thrown in for good measure). The oxygen is used for metabolism (i.e. during respiration our bodies use the oxygen to turn the food we've eaten into useful energy to power our muscles). Or lungs evolved from fish gills. A fish gulps in water through its mouth and lets it trickle past its gills. These sensitive gas gatherers extract up to 80% of the oxygen in the water, and then the water drains back into the sea. Our lungs grab only 25 % of the oxygen from the air we inhale from nature or a tank and exhale the other 75 % with the waste carbon dioxide thus much useable oxygen (O2) is wasted with each breath. Furthermore, the quantity of O2 lost in this manner increases with increasing depth. However the nitrogen breathed in can also cause problems. It's all to do with pressure. The deeper you dive, the more the water pressure increases and the harder it is to breathe. Every extra 10 m (33 ft) of depth the pressure increases by another atmosphere (an "atmosphere" is the normal air pressure around us on land). In other words, 10 m (33 ft) below the surface the pressure is twice as great as it is at the surface and 20 m (66 ft) below, it's three times as great. No-one can dive deeper than about 120 m (400 ft) without a special deep-sea diving suit. That's not the only reason pressure is a problem. Pressure also changes the way the body responds to the different gases breathed. If they dive deeper than about 30 m (100 ft), they can suffer from a problem called nitrogen narcosis (also called the "Martini effect" and "rapture of the deep"), which is a bit like being drunk underwater: it can dangerously impair judgment. To avoid this, divers who want to go deeper tend to breathe a gas mixture containing less nitrogen, such as heliox (a mixture of mostly helium and oxygen).
Coming back to the surface presents problems too. Too quickly, causes "the bends" (also known as decompression sickness or caisson disease). As they rise up and the pressure falls, bubbles of nitrogen start to appear in the blood. It's exactly the same as unscrewing a fizzy drink bottle. Removing the top reduces the pressure and the gas forced inside the liquid suddenly reappears in the form of bubbles. Depending on where in the blood the bubbles form, the bends can cause anything from a mild pain in the joints to complete paralysis or even death. Divers avoid it by surfacing very slowly. If they must surface quickly, in an emergency, they are usually put in a high-pressure decompression chamber straight afterwards to "decompress" (with the pressure gradually reduced to normal).
Aqualung ?
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A rebreather
MK-16 scuba rebreather; aka closed-circuit scuba, has the diver breathing in and out of a closed-loop of tubes and tanks around which gas is constantly circulating. As with ordinary scuba, the diver breathes in a mixture of oxygen and other gases. Their lungs remove some of the oxygen, and breathe out the rest with carbon dioxide. But instead of the oxygen and carbon dioxide being exhaled, they flow back around the diver's breathing system for recycling, in a completely closed-loop. The carbon dioxide is removed by a chemical scrubber and more oxygen is added from tanks on the diver's back to replace what the diver's lungs removed. Rebreather diving is a unique experience. The onboard counter lungs offset annoying buoyancy changes. Warm moist gas is breathed by the diver, so 'cotton mouth' is a thing of the past. Thermal balance is maintained longer too. The most noticeable feature is the absence of noisy exhaust bubbles.
Its design start with a breathing loop equipped with a mouthpiece, through which a diver breathes. If the entire breathing loop is of rigid construction, the diver would be unable to breathe because there would be nowhere for the exhaled gas to go into, nor the inhaled gas to come from (analogous to trying to breathe in and out of a soda bottle). Thus, there must be some sort of collapsible bag attached to the breathing loop that inflates when a diver exhales, and deflates when a diver inhales. This bag is referred to as, appropriately enough as a counterlung.
If a diver was to continue breathing in and out from this breathing loop, the carbon dioxide (CO2) exhaled by the diver would soon build up to dangerous levels. Therefore, the breathing loop must also include a CO2 absorbent canister containing some sort of chemical (e.g., HP Sodasorb, Sofnolime, or lithium hydroxide) that absorbs CO2, removing it from the breathing gas.
Of course, the CO2 absorbent canister alone will not permit the diver to continue breathing from the rebreather indefinitely; the oxygen in the breathing loop will eventually be consumed by diver via metabolism. Therefore, the rebreather must have some means to allow oxygen to be injected into the breathing loop in order to continue sustaining the diver. Furthermore, to prevent the diver from simply inhaling the same gas that was just exhaled, the rebreather must be designed to ensure that gas continues to circulate in one direction around the breathing loop. This is usually accomplished with an upstream check-valve, and a downstream check-valve, located on either side of the mouthpiece; these allow inhaled gas to come from only one direction in the breathing loop, and allow exhaled gas to go only in the opposite direction. Another feature common to most rebreather designs is some sort of shut-off valve in the mouthpiece which can be shut if the mouthpiece is removed underwater, to prevent water from flooding the breathing loop
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Semi-closed rebreathers
Is a form of mixed-gas rebreather, in that it incorporates gas mixtures other than pure oxygen. There are two fundamentally different categories of semi-closed rebreathers: active-addition, and passive-addition. By far, the most common are the active-addition systems. The supply gas is usually injected into the breathing loop at a constant-mass rate. In other words, regardless of the depth, a constant number of molecules of gas are injected into the loop in a given period of time. The rate of injection in such systems must be adjusted according to the fraction of oxygen in the supply gas, such that the rate of oxygen addition to the breathing loop meets or exceeds the rate at which the diver consumes oxygen in the breathing loop.
What are the advantages of rebreathers?
Rebreathers provide two fundamental advantages over open-circuit systems: More efficient use of gas and near-silent operation. Gas Efficiency: as the depth of the dive increases, this inefficiency of open-circuit systems is compounded: because of the increased pressure at greater depths, more gas molecules are lost with each exhaled breath. A rebreather, on the other hand, retains most or all of the exhaled breath, processes it, and returns it to the diver. The deeper the dive, the more advantageous (from a gas efficiency perspective) rebreathers become. For example, a standard scuba cylinder contains enough gas to sustain an average resting person for about an hour and a half at the surface. The same cylinder will last only 45 minutes 10 meters (33 feet) underwater, and less than 10 minutes at a depth of 90 meters (297 feet). But if that same cylinder were filled with oxygen and used to supply a rebreather, the diver could theoretically stay underwater for two days -- regardless of the depth!
Since your exhaled breath is not lost to the great blue depths, your gas consumption drops by up to 90%, allowing you to dive all weekend on just one 4 or 5 liter cylinder!
Not only is the Drager Dolphin quieter, but through the use of Nitrox, it will allow you to stay down longer. An average diver usually consumes the contents of an 12 l. tank in a 20 m. dive for 55 minutes. Advanced divers who have training in Nitrox gasses can expand that 55 minute limit through the use of Nitrox, but they are still limited by the 12 l. tank unless they use a very heavy pair of tanks.
The Dolphin Rebreathers use Nitrox, a nitrogen-oxygen mixture. With Nitrox, your breathing air contains less nitrogen. You can stay down longer because the non-decompression times have increased. How long you can dive, how often and how deep is all a question of mixture with Dolphin Rebreathers. The variable oxygen-nitrogen mix ratio offers you enhanced capabilities.
Silence: with each exhaled breath, a diver using conventional scuba gear releases a large burst of noisy bubbles. The effect of this on the behavior of marine-life varies, but in most cases, fishes behave warily and are reluctant to allow a diver to approach closely.
What are the disadvantages of rebreathers?
All kinds of rebreathers have certain specific complexities which introduce forms of risk not experienced by scuba divers. The fundamental difference between open-circuit scuba and rebreather systems is that on scuba, if a diver can breathe and is not outside well-established depth limits, the breathing gas is going to be life-sustaining (assuming the cylinder was filled properly). If there is a problem with an open-circuit system, the problem is usually very self-evident to the diver, so the diver at least is aware of the problem and can takes steps toward a solution.
With rebreathers, however, the breathing gas may be dynamic, and thus the oxygen concentration may drift out of life-sustaining range within the course of a single dive. The oxygen concentration in the breathing loop depends on diver workload. Under certain circumstances, especially during high exertion and/or during an ascent, the oxygen concentration in a semi-closed rebreather could drop to dangerously low levels.
These problems can be largely avoided if the gas supply rate of rebreathers is adjusted carefully and the breathing loop is flushed with fresh gas prior to an ascent. Unfortunately, symptoms associated with hypoxia and oxygen toxicity cannot be regarded as reliable precursors to black-out. Therefore, it is ultimately up to the diver to take steps to ensure a continuous life-sustaining gas mixture i.e. a higher dedication to equipment maintenance. Furthermore, rebreathers are generally more complex devices than open-circuit scuba gear, which also accounts for why they require more training time.
The Dolphin
Dräger Dolphin Semi-closed Rebreathers
With the Dolphin Rebreather, you get the benefits of Nitrox - extended bottom times with the time to use it and a quiet, peaceful dive (without a hundred lbs of tanks strapped to your back)
The Dolphin is a semiclosed rebreather for use with nitrox. It uses a constant mass flow dosing system which includes an additional demand bypass. Depending on which nitrox mixture you are using there are different orifices to set the rate of flow. The loop has a total volume of approximately 10.5 liters and depending on your individual lung volume and the adjustment of the pressure relief/dump valve the volume can be varied by 4.5 to 7.1 liters. The scrubber holds approx. 2.25 kg of absorbent. It comes with either a 4 or 5 liter 200 bar steel cylinder and a separate 2 liters, 200 bar open circuit bailout cylinder. It is 520 mm long, 370 mm wide and 2 5m m (205mm?) deep. On land it weighs approximately 17 kg and in water the weight is about 1 kg negative.
This constant supply of fresh gas ensures that you will always be provided with enough oxygen. Should you need more oxygen, due to great physical exertion, or if you need to clear your mask, a bypass valve opens automatically to supply additional fresh gas.
Another aspect of rebreather Scuba that you will enjoy is that the inhaled air is pleasantly warm and moist. This is because the chemical reaction involved in the absorption of carbon dioxide generates warmth and moisture, eliminating "dry mouth".
SELF-GENERATING (CANISTER) TYPE OBA
The self-generating, or canister, type OBA (Figure 11-37) is also a self-contained breathing apparatus.
Figure 11-37. Canister Type OBA
Construction
The canister contains chemicals that react with moisture in the wearer's exhaled breath to produce oxygen. These chemicals also absorb carbon dioxide from the exhaled breath. If the unit is used for a short time and then removed, a new canister must be inserted before the next use. The chemicals in the canister continue to react even after the face piece is removed and there is no accurate way of measuring the time left before the chemicals are used up. The breathing bag holds and cools the oxygen supplied by the canister and is made of reinforced neoprene.
The manual timer is set when the equipment is put into operation. It gives an audible alarm to warn the operator when the canister is nearly expended. The timer is no more than a clock; it does not indicate the condition of the canister. It should always be set to allow the wearer enough time to leave the contaminated area after the alarm sounds.
Operating Cycle
Figure 11-38 shows the operating cycle of the canister-type unit. The wearer's exhaled breath [1] passes from the face piece into the exhalation tube and then into the canister. The chemicals in the canister absorb moisture and carbon dioxide [2]. They produce oxygen, which passes from the canister to the breathing bag [3]. When the wearer inhales [4], the oxygen moves from the breathing bag to the face piece [5] via the inhalation tube.
Figure 11-38. Sequence of Operating Cycle for OBA
Putting on the OBA
Step 5; Remove the protective cap from the top to expose a thin copper seal (Figure 11-43).
Step 6; Swing the canister retaining bail forward and hold it with one hand. Now insert the canister in the holder, with the label facing outward, away from your body (Figure 11-44).
Step 7; Swing the retaining bail down under the canister and tighten the retainer (a heavy screw with a pad and hand-wheel) by turning it clockwise. This secures the canister in the holder and forms a seal between the canister and the central casting. The point of the central casting punctures the copper seal (Figure 11-45).
Step 8; Check the canister type to determine the correct starting action. Then don the facepiece as described in paragraph 11-158.
Step 9; Start a self-start canister as follows. Locate the small triangular metal tab on the metal box at the bottom of the canister. Grasp the tab with the thumb and index finger of your right hand and pull it downward (Figure 11-46). The small metal box will come away from the canister, exposing a lanyard. Grasp the lanyard with your index finger and thumb and pull it straight out away from your body. Do not pull down on the lanyard. The correct action will activate the chemicals in the canister, filling the breathing bag with oxygen. If the lanyard breaks and does not activate the self-starter, use the manual-start procedure in step 10.
Step 10; Start a manual-start canister in a safe, uncontaminated area by inserting one or two fingers under the facepiece and stretching it away from your face (Figure 11-47). With the other hand, grasp the inhalation and exhalation tubes and squeeze them tightly; then inhale. Now release the tubes, remove your fingers from under the mask, and exhale. Repeat this procedure several times to inflate the breathing bag. This will start the chemical action in the canister. Do not over inflate the breathing bag! It should be firm, but not rock hard.
Step 11; Test the facepiece for leakage by squeezing the inhalation and exhalation tubes while inhaling (Figure 11-47).
Step 12; Set the timer (Figure 11-48) by turning the knob clockwise. On older units, the timer is set for 30 minutes. This allows the wearer 15 minutes to leave the contaminated area after the alarm sounds. The control should be turned to the extreme clockwise position and then reset to the desired time interval. This ensures that the alarm will sound for a full 8 to 10 seconds.
CAUTION: One cause of difficulty in breathing is an over inflated breathing bag. If the bag is over inflated, it will seem very hard. This problem can be corrected, by briefly depressing the button in the center of the relief valve. The bag should not be allowed to deflate completely during this process. If the bag becomes under inflated, the user must repeat step 10.
Removing the Canister
The removal and disposal of an expended canister are very hazardous operations that must be performed to avoid injury. The procedure (see also Figure 11-49) is as follows:
Step 1; Spread your feet wide apart, and lean forward from the waist. (The chemical action that takes place in the canister generates sufficient heat to burn bare skin).
Step 2; Loosen the retaining screw by turning the hand wheel counterclockwise.
Step 3; Swing the retaining bail forward, and let the canister drop to the deck. It must not be tossed (or allowed to fall) into the bilge, or any place where oil, water, snow, ice, grease, or other contaminants can enter the hole in the copper seal. Organic material may cause a violent reaction. Water and substances containing water will cause a rapid chemical action in the canister, creating more pressure than can be released through the small neck opening.
Step 4; Puncture the expended canister several times, front and back.
Step 5; Fill a pail with clean water, deep enough to completely submerge the canister. Gently drop the canister into the water. A violent chemical reaction will take place. After the boiling has stopped, the water (which is now caustic) and the canister must be discarded as a hazardous waste.
Maintenance of Oxygen-Generating Apparatus
After-use maintenance by using the following procedures:
Clean the facepiece. Be especially careful to dry all the equipment thoroughly. Check the inhalation and exhalation valves for corrosion and replace if necessary. Test the alarm bell. Inspect the breathing bag. Inspect the canister holder and retaining bail and screw. Check the central casting plunger that breaks the seal and seals the canister into the system. This plunger operates by moving in and out about one fourth of an inch. A spring holds the plunger out. When the canister is inserted and tightened down by the bail screw, the plunger is depressed against the spring. This action ensures a tight seal. If the plunger does not work properly, it must be repaired or replaced; it should never be lubricated.
Safety Precautions
The user must be careful not to damage the breathing bag on nails, broken glass, or other sharp objects. Foreign material, especially petroleum products, must be kept from entering an opened canister. The chemical in the canister must not come in contact with the skin.
For older units without the self-start action, three fresh canisters should always be kept in readiness, with their caps intact, in the storage case. For newer units with the self-start action, two fresh canisters may be kept in the case.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the OBA
The following are some disadvantages of the canister-type apparatus:
About 2 minutes is required to start a manual-start canister and get the equipment into operation.
If the relief valve is not operated properly, the breathing bag may lose its oxygen. The wearer must then return to an uncontaminated area to restart the unit.
The bulkiness of the unit and its location on the wearer's chest may reduce maneuverability and the ability to work freely.
The unit is not easily used for buddy breathing in rescue work.
The apparatus cannot be used in an atmosphere that has contained or is suspected of containing flammable or combustible liquids or gases.
When the alarm bell sounds, it rings once and stops. Due to noise or some other distraction, the wearer may not hear the alarm.
SELF-CONTAINED, DEMAND-TYPE BREATHING APPARATUS
The demand-type breathing apparatus is being used increasingly aboard ships. Its popularity stems from its convenience, the cool fresh air it supplies the user, the speed with which it can be put into service, and its versatility. The demand-type apparatus gets its name from the functioning of the regulator, which controls the flow of air to the facepiece. The regulator supplies air "on demand;" that is, it supplies the user with air when he needs it and in the amount his respiratory system requires. It therefore supplies different users with air at different rates, depending on their "demand."
Note: The newer model of the demand-type breathing apparatus is being supplied with a positive flow to the facepiece. The slight pressure in the facepiece prevents contaminated air from entering the facepiece and getting into the respiratory tract. This positive air pressure lessens the critical nature of the facepiece fit against the user's face.
The self contained, demand-type apparatus consists of four assemblies:
Face piece; is the standard full-face type discussed earlier in this chapter.
Regulator; Air from the supply cylinder passes through the high-pressure hose and a preset pressure-reducing valve in the regulator. The admission valve is normally closed. However, when the user inhales, he produces a partial vacuum on one side of the admission valve. This opens the valve, allowing air to pass into the facepiece. The amount of air supplied depends on the amount of vacuum produced, which in turn depends on the user's air requirements. The regulator has a low-pressure alarm bell attached to the high-pressure hose. Older models of this regulator were equipped with a reserve valve. The reserve-valve lever is placed in the "start" position when the equipment is donned. When the cylinder pressure falls to about 500 psi, breathing becomes difficult, and the wearer must move the reserve lever to the "Reserve" position. This allows the wearer 4 to 5 minutes of reserve air with which to leave the contaminated area. An alarm bell kit can be installed on this older regulator model.
Air cylinder; includes a pressure gauge and a control valve. On most cylinders, the threaded hose connection is a standard size. Cylinders are rated according to breathing duration, which depends on the size and pressure of the cylinder. There are four standard sizes. A cylinder capacity of 1,200 psi (42 feet) of air should be enough to provide about 30 minutes of breathing.
Backpack or sling pack and the harness; They differ slightly according to the manufacturer, but all makes are donned in about the same way. However, backpack units are donned and stowed differently from sling-pack units.
Cavern Diving
Many cavern divers prefer low-volume masks less likely to get dislodged by the current found in some high-outflow springs. Most cavern divers prefer the open-heel, adjustable type fin. Allows you to wear wetsuit booties. They can be worn if you get out of water during dive. Snorkel, few if any caverns contain natural air pockets where you might use a snorkel, the only air pockets you are likely to find are accumulations of divers exhaust air, which is unsafe to breathe. Should snorkel be used in open water swim to cavern it should be removed and secured be for entering. CD demands more precise buoyancy control than open water diving. You are in an enclosed environment, must assume a slightly head-down, feet-up profile. This helps keep fin blast directed away from the floor where it can stir up silt. This combination of proper buoyancy control and profile is called trim.
OWD weight belt around waist it is the last piece of equipment to be donned before entering the water and first to be ditched in the event of an emergency. While this is an excellent axiom for open-water diving, there are several reasons why it is undesirable for CD. Ditching it can actually pin diver against ceiling and cause silting. Second wearing weights around the waist well result in shifting center of gravity low on the body, often forcing him to struggle through in a feet down, head up position. To avoid this modify location distributed across the body and amount of weight. Recalling that suit well compress during descent, it is logical to conclude that less weight is required to remain neutral at depth than to descend to that depth. And in fact, if weighted properly, it turns out that a diver needs only about 2/3 to ¾ of the weight carried on his weight belt, in order to stay neutral. The other 1/3 to ¼ is required only during descent. Once a few feet of depth is attained extra weight becomes excess baggage. Drop weights once removed are clipped to the guide lines. Jerry cans, you add or dump air, as makeshift buoyancy-compensating devices. Types of BC’s horse-collar, jacket, open-shoulder style and back mounted.
BREECHING EQUIPMENT:
These are used by most modern armies except the US, which sticks to the M203 grenade launcher. Bullet trap grenades do not require special ammunition or fittings; they slide over the muzzle of the rifle and are dispatched toward the enemy with a standard cartridge. BTGs turn every infantryman into a grenadier (i.e. anyone in the squad in a firing position to target that window the sniper just fired from can engage).
Simon aka Rifle-Launched Entry Munitions (RLEM) aka M100 GREM (grenade, rifle, entry munitions) door-breaching rifle grenades (357mm) from Rafael of Israel. U.S. Army, has ordered $52 million worth in 2000 a US$2.15 million contract delivered an initial 1,817 M100 grenades. The base contract included 720 XM101 reusable training rounds (with and without bullet traps), together with 10,000 impulse rounds; 15 inert models for training. Simon is for breaching steel or wooden doors (blows a man-sized hole) from a distance of 30 meters (with "little collateral effect") minimum stand-off range is 10m. It may be fired from a variety of rifles using regular bullets. It dose have more recoil than the standard rifle being used. It looks something like a fencing sword. The "blade" is slid into the barrel and fired by a grenade launching blank; the blade then trails the massive "handle" to provide stability in flight. The standard Simon grenade is the Simon 150. It consists of a 150g shaped explosive charge in a plastic housing, a long, light alloy stand-off rod, a stabilizer tail, a safe/arm mechanism and an impact detonator. Launch propulsion is provided by a standard blank cartridge, although an integral bullet trap allows the M100 to be launched using standard M855 Ball and M856 Tracer rounds. When the stand-off rod strikes the target, the impact detonator explodes the main charge. This directs a sharp blast wave forward to blast down the door and clear any associated booby traps. Back blast is minimal, so that once the door has been removed from its hinges and/or surround, the interior can be stormed immediately. While the Simon 150 can be used to blast down doors, the Simon 300 is used against hardened structures. The lighter Simon 50 can be used to blow in windows.
Explosive Cutting Tape; this relatively small device blows a man-sized hole through a brick wall.
BEAST (Breachers Explosive Access Selectable Tool) it is roughly two-by-five feet and looks something like a sleeping bag. Fastened to a wall, it can blow a man-sized hole through brick or masonry walls.
(UGVs, or unmanned ground vehicles)
SP 6/2000; The USMC is buying two models of robots for MOUT. The K8 weighs 30 lbs and is small 24x20x7 inches so it can be carried to where it is needed. It carries video, IR and still cameras and microphones. Using tracked paddles to get around, the K8 can climb stairs and rubble. If it gets knocked over its paddles can right it. Can survive a six-foot drop; often the Marines throw it through windows or doors. The other robot is the Lemming. Roughly the same size as the K8, it has an arm that can carry a camera so a picture can be obtained without exposing the entire robot to fire. The Lemming can also operate under water, making it perfect for checking out sewers.
12/16/08: the manufacturer of the largest robot, the 120 pound Talon, has developed a strong armed droid (most can left 10 lbs and don’t have a strong grip). It can lift up to 65 lbs and has a gripping strength of 100 lbs. With the help of a little duct tape, it can hold and manipulate the standard AN/PSS-14 mine detector, making it much safer to use. The Talon is more popular with police departments, than with combat troops (who prefer much smaller and lighter droids). Talon robot has an armed (with a 5.56mm machine-guns and 350 rounds of ammo) version. This Talon IIIB, aka Swords, It's seen as more of a security, than a combat, device. U.S. Army has contracted to buy 7,000. The new, 30 lbs (small) SUGV. They are part of a new generation of gear called FCS (Future Combat Systems). SUGV is still waiting for some of the high tech FCS communications and sensor equipment, and is using off-the-shelf stuff in the meantime. A slightly heavier "SUGV" (PackBot) has been available for the last few years. The PackBot 510 weighs 42 lbs and can carry up to 46 lbs of equipment. It uses a controller that looks, and operates, very much like a video game controller. The wireless controller can operate a PackBot at a distance of up to 1,000 meters. The battery lasts 2-12 hrs, depending on mission (12 hrs as sentinel). It's (28 inches long, 16 wide and 8 high). Top speed is about 2.5 meters a second, and it can climb stairs. It's waterproof and can travel up to ten km on one charge. This model will cost about $90,000 each. The 30 lbs robot, similar to the slightly larger PackBot. Both of these were designed and produced by iRobot. SUGV can carry 6.5 lbs of gear, and seven different "mission packages" are available. These include various types of sensors and double jointed arms (for grabbing things.) SUGV is waterproof and shock resistant. It fits into the standard army backpack, and is meant to operate in a harsh environment. The battery powered SUGV is operated wirelessly, or via a fiber optic cable. Batteries 8 hours or more. After that, you send out another SUGV with a fresh battery, and return the other one for a recharge. Another mission placing explosives by a door (to blow it open for the troops), producing smoke screens.
Less lethal;
SP 5/2000; the military insists that non-lethal is a misnomer, and that the term should properly be "less lethal".
Army Materiel Command has created "non-lethal capability sets" which are prepositioned in strategic locations. Each set has enough gear for 200 troops, and includes 57 types of items ranging from riot batons and shields to non-lethal ammunition and pepper spray. The Marines already have 27 such sets, and the Army plans to buy five per year.
SP 11/1999; USMC is developing the Modular Crowd Control Munitions, a modified Claymore mine with 600 rubber balls replacing the more traditional steel pellets. The MCCM is non-lethal (except within 5m). It has a maximum effective range of 15 meters. So that Marines do not confuse it with the real Claymore, the back is lime green and has raised bumps so that it can be identified by sight or (in darkness) by feel.
APPENDIX PCP Rule # 13.
Operations conducted in mountainous terrain may often require the crossing of swift flowing rivers or streams.
A dry crossing on fallen timber or logjams are preferable to attempting a wet crossing. Depending upon the time of year, the closer you are to the source, or headwaters, the better your chances are of finding a natural snow or ice bridge for crossing. If a dry crossing is unavailable, the following should be considered: the force of the flowing water is great and is most often underestimated. Levels change with freezing or melting conditions. The time of day can be an important factor. Although early morning is generally best because the water level is normally lower during this period, recent weather is a big factor; there may have been heavy rain in the last 8 hours which can turn steams into raging rivers. As glaciers, snow, or ice melt during the day, the rivers rise, reaching their maximum height between mid afternoon and late evening, depending on the distance from the source. Crossings, if made during the early morning, will also allow clothing to dry more quickly during the heat of the day. Normal locations of shallow water, upper course near saddles, just down stream form joining contributories, or in the deltas of single contributories especially at the widest, and thus shallowest, point of the river or stream. Sharp bends in the river should be avoided since the water is likely to be deep and have a strong current on the outside of the bend. Crossings will be easiest on a flat, sandy bottom. Large rocks and boulders provide poor footing and cause a great deal of turbulence in the water. Many mountain streams, especially those which are fed by glacier run-off, contain sections with numerous channels. A route through these braided sections is often easier than crossing one main channel. A drawback however is the greater distance to the far bank increasing exposure time however the sand and gravel bars between the channels can offer some cover or concealment.
Things to consider before crossing: Prepare men and equipment as far in advance as feasible. Final preparation should be completed in a secure perimeter on the near side just before crossing. All weak and non-swimmers should be identified so stronger swimmers may give assistance in crossing. Waterproof water-sensitive items. Wrap radios, binoculars, SOI, papers, maps and any extra clothing in (trash bags work well). These bags also provide additional buoyancy in case of a fall. Trousers are un-bloused and T-shirts and blouses are un-tucked i.e. pulled out of the trousers. This allows water to escape through the clothing. All pockets are buttoned. Depending on the circumstances of the crossing (for example, tactical situation, temperature of the air and water), the crossing can be made in minimal clothing so that dry clothing is available after the crossing. Boots should be worn to protect feet from rocks; however, socks and inner soles should be removed. Load-carrying equipment (LCE i.e. web gear) harness and load-bearing vest (LBV) are unbuckled and worn loosely the waist strap to packs are unbuckled so it can be jettisoned quickly. The rucksack should be worn well up on the back but not on top of the shoulders and snug enough so it does not flop around and cause you to lose your balance. Secure everything well within your pack. It is easier to find one large pack than to find several smaller items. Helmets are normally removed in slow moving streams with sandy or gravel bottoms. However, when crossing swift streams, especially those with large rocks the risk of head injury is high so the helmet is worn.
INDIVIDUAL CROSSINGS
Whenever possible, and when the degree of experience permits, streams should be forded individually for a speedier crossing. Cross at a slight downstream angle so as not to fight the current. The individual should generally face upstream and slightly sideways, leaning slightly into the current to help maintain balance. At times, he may choose to face more sideways as this will reduce the surface area of the body against the current. The feet should be shuffled along the bottom rather than lifted, with the downstream foot normally in the lead. There is normally less chance of a slip when stepping off with the current as opposed to stepping off against the current, take short, deliberate steps. Lunging steps and crossing the feet result in a momentary loss of balance and greatly increase the chance of a slip. If an obstacle is encountered, the feet should be placed on the upstream side of it where the turbulence is less severe and the water normally shallower. To increase balance, a long ice ax, sturdy tree limb, is used to give the individual a third point of contact. The staff should be used on the upstream side of the individual and slightly leaned upon for support. The staff should be moved first, then the feet shuffled forward to it. This allows two points of contact to be maintained with the streambed at all times.
Swimming:
Defensive swimming for white water, posture i.e. lay on your back feet kept at the surface to keep from snagging and helps you push off of things. Legs pointing down stream with body at 45-degree angle to shore, i.e. head is closest, so current will push you towards. Fanning the hands alongside the body to add buoyancy and to fend off submerged rocks. Try to avoid backwater eddies and converging currents as they often contain dangerous swirls. Bubbly water under falls has less buoyancy.
TEAM CROSSING
When the water level begins to reach thigh deep, or the current is swift, a team crossing may be used. For chain crossing, two or more individuals cross arms with each other and lock their hands in front of themselves. The line formed faces the far bank. The largest individual should be on the upstream end of the line to break the current and anchor the line. The line uses the same principles as for individuals, but with the added support of each other. The line should cross parallel to the direction of the current. The team still moves at a slight downstream angle, stepping off with the downstream foot in the lead. Cavalry crossing rivers, form two lanes abreast mounted across entire river, to break water up stream. If river to deep drawl it off into plains by cutting trenches.
ROPE INSTALLATIONS
When the water level begins to reach waist deep or the current is too swift for even a team crossing, you may install a handline or rope bridge. Crossing on a handline still requires each Marine to enter the water and get wet. A one-rope bridge may require only a couple of Marines to enter the water. Which one used will depend on the anchors available their height above the water, and the distance between them. The maximum distance a one-rope bridge is capable of spanning is approximately 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the rope. Natural anchors are not a necessity; however, the time required to find a site with solid natural anchors will probably be less than the time required to construct artificial anchors. In some areas, above the tree line for example, artificial anchors may have to be constructed. Dead man anchors buried in the ground or under a large pile of boulders work well. Logjams and other large obstructions present their own hazards. Once a logjam forms, the water starts to erode the stream bottom. Eventually deep drop-offs or holes may develop, especially around the sides and off the downstream end. A wet crossing in the vicinity of a log jam should be performed a good distance below or above it.
Establishing the Far Anchor; whether a handline or rope bridge is to be installed, someone must cross the stream with one end of the rope and anchor it. The swimmer should be belayed across for safety. The belay position should be placed as far above the crossing as possible. In the event that the current is too strong for the individual, he will pendulum back to the near bank. Rescuers are positioned at points the swimmer may pendulum back too. The initial crossing site should be free of obstacles that would snag the rope and prevent the pendulum action. The individual may attach the belay rope to his seat harness or a swami belt with a karabiner. He should NEVER tie directly into the rope when being belayed for a stream crossing. If the swimmer should be swept away and become tangled, he must be able to release himself quickly.
Figure 9-4 Stream crossing using a handline
The far anchor should be downstream from the near anchor, approximately thirty degrees. Here again, it is easier to move with the current as opposed to directly across or against it. The rope may be anchored immediately on the far bank, pulled tight, and anchored on the near bank, or it may be installed with a transport tightening system if a tighter rope is required. Crossing will always be performed on the downstream side of the handline. A second climbing rope is used as a belay (Figure 9-5). One end of the belay rope will be on the near bank and the other end on the far bank. An appropriate knot is tied into the middle of the belay rope to form two fixed loops with each loop being approximately 6 inches long. One loop is connected to the handline with karabiner(s) and the individual crossing connects one loop to himself. The loops are short enough so the individual is always within arms reach of the handline. The individuals are belayed from both the near and far banks. If a mishap should occur the individual can be retrieved from either shore, whichever appears closest. The belay on the opposite shore can be released allowing the individual to pendulum to the bank. The belay rope most not be tied to the belay person so it can be quickly released.
Figure 9-5 Belay rope for crossing using a handline
Under most circumstances, the handline should be crossed one person at a time. This keeps rope stretch and load on the anchors to a minimum. Rucksacks can be either carried on the back the same way as for individual crossings, or they can be attached to the handline and pulled along behind the individual.
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GLACIERS
Glacier formation and characteristics: A glacier is formed by the perennial accumulation of snow and other precipitation in a valley or draw. The accumulated snow eventually turns to ice. The "flow" or movement of glaciers is caused by gravity. There are a few different types of glaciers identifiable by their location or activity.
Valley glacier resides and flows in a valley. Cirque glacier forms and resides in a bowl. Hanging glacier these are a result of valley or cirque glaciers flowing and or deteriorating. As the movement continues, portions separate and are sometimes left hanging on mountains, ridgelines, or cliffs. Piedmont glacier formed by one or more valley glaciers; spreads out into a large area. Retreation glacier a deteriorating glacier; annual melt of entire glacier exceeds the flow of the ice. Surging glacier annual flow of the ice exceeds the melt; the movement is measurable over a period of time.
Figure 10-21 Glacier cross section
Figure 10-22 Glacier features
Firn is compacted snow that has been on the glacier at least one year. Firn is the building blocks of the ice that makes the glacier. The firn line can change annually. The firn line separates the accumulation and ablation zones. As you approach this area, you may see "strips" of snow in the ice. Be cautious, as these could be snow bridges a somewhat supportive structure of snow that covers a crevasse. Most of these are formed by the wind. The strength depends on the snow itself. The snow bridges will be weakest lower on the glacier. The accumulation zone is the area that remains snow-covered throughout the year because of year-round snowfall i.e. the snowfall exceeds melt. The ablation zone is the area where the snow melts off the ice in summer i.e. melt equals or exceeds snowfall. A moat is a wall formed at the head (starting point/stern) of the glacier. These are formed by heat reflected from the valley walls. A bergschrund is a large crevasse at the head of a glacier caused by separation of active (flowing) and inactive (stationary) ice. These will usually be seen at the base of a major incline and can make an ascent on that area difficult. A crevasse is a split or crack in the glacier surface. These are formed when the glacier moves over an irregularity in the bed surface. A transverse crevasse forms perpendicular to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 30 degrees or more. Longitudinal crevasses form parallel to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier widens. Diagonal crevasses form at an angle to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found along the edges where a glacier makes a bend. Icefalls are a jumble of crisscross crevasses and large ice towers that are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 25 degrees or more. On the steep pitch of a glacier, ice flowing over irregularities and cliffs in the underlying valley floor cause the ice to break up into ice blocks and towers, crisscrossed with crevasses. This jumbled cliff of ice is known as an icefall. Although crevasses are visible in the ablation zone in the summer the accumulation zone will still have hidden crevasses. Seracs are large pinnacles or columns of ice that are normally found in icefalls or on hanging glaciers. Ice avalanches are falling chunks of ice normally occurring near icefalls or hanging glaciers. Pressure ridges are wavelike ridges that form on glacier normally after a glacier has flowed over icefalls. An ice mill is a hole in the glacier formed by swirling water on the surface. These can be large enough for a human to slip into. A glacier window is an opening at the snout of the glacier where water runs out of the glacier. The moraine is an accumulation of rock or debris on a glacier caused by avalanche of valley walls. The lateral moraine is formed on sides of glacier. The medial moraine is in the middle. This is also formed as two glaciers come together or as a glacier moves around a central peak. The terminal moraine is at the base of a glacier and is formed as moraines meet at the snout or terminus of a glacier. The ground moraine is the rocky debris extending out from the terminus of a glacier. This is formed by the scraping of earth as the glacier grew or surged and exposed as the glacier retreats. A Nunatak is a rock projection protruding through the glacier as the glacier flows around it.
The principle dangers and obstacles to movement on glaciers are concealed crevasses and snow cornices (bumps indicate locations) icefalls, and ice avalanches. Snow-covered crevasses make movement on a glacier extremely treacherous but possible. In winter, when visibility is poor, the difficulty of recognizing them is increased. Toward the end of the summer, crevasses are widest and covered by the least snow. Open crevasses are obvious, and their presence is an inconvenience rather than a danger to movement. Narrow cracks can be jumped, provided the take off and landing spots are firm and offer good footing. Wider cracks will have to be circumvented unless a solid piece of ice joins into an ice bridge. Such ice bridges are often formed in the lower portion of a crevasse, connecting both sides of it. In the area of the firn line, the zone that divides seasonal melting from permanent falls of snow, large crevasses remain open, though their depths may be clogged with masses of snow. Narrow cracks may be covered. In this zone, the snow, which covers glacier ice, melts more rapidly than that which covers crevasses. The difference between glacier ice and narrow snow-covered cracks is immediately apparent; the covering snow is white, whereas the glacier ice is gray. Usually the upper part of a glacier is permanently snow covered. The snow surface here will vary in consistency from dry powder to consolidated snow. Below this surface cover are found other snow layers that become more crystalline in texture with depth, and gradually turn into glacier ice. It is here that crevasses are most difficult to detect, for even wide crevasses may be completely concealed by snow bridges. They are formed by windblown snow that builds a cornice over the empty interior of the crevasse. As the cornice grows from the windward side, a counter drift is formed on the leeward side. The growth of the leeward portion will be slower than that to the windward so that the juncture of the cornices occurs over the middle of the crevasse only when the contributing winds blow equally from each side. Bridges can also be formed without wind, especially during heavy falls of dry snow. Since cohesion of dry snow depends only on an interlocking of the branches of delicate crystals, such bridges are particularly dangerous during the winter. When warmer weather prevails the snow becomes settled and more compacted, and may form firmer bridges. Once a crevasse has been completely bridged, its detection is difficult. Bridges are generally slightly concave because of the settling of the snow. This concavity is perceptible in sunshine, but difficult to detect in flat light.
Crossings; Crampons and an ice ax are all that is required to safely travel in the ablation zone in the summer. If a sled is crossed just pull it, do not secure it to a climber, but connect it to the rope with rope or webbing. If marking the route on the glacier is necessary for backtracking or to prevent disorientation in storms or flat-light conditions. The first team member can place a new marker when the last team member reaches the previous marker.
Securing the Backpack/Rucksack; if an individual should fall into a crevasse, it is essential that he be able to jettison the pack as an anchor if not the pack well force him into an upside down position while suspended in the crevasse. The pack can be attached to the climbing rope with a sling rope or webbing and a carabiner. A fallen climber can immediately drop the pack without losing it. The drop cord length should be minimal to allow the fallen individual to reach the pack after releasing it, if warm clothing is needed. When hanging from the drop cord, the pack should be oriented just as when wearing it (ensure the cord pulls from the top of the pack). Point man safety technique, pack is tided to rope with knots along its length, as an anchor, dragged behind you when crossing crevasses. Crossing the Bergschrund takes time to fine the right point to cross.
The first rule for movement on glaciers is to rope up. A roped team of two, while ideal for rock climbing, is at a disadvantage on a snow-covered glacier. The best combination is a three-man rope team. The risk of traveling in the accumulation zone can be managed to an acceptable level when ropes are used, three to four climbers will tie in to one rope at equal distances from each other, with three, double the rope and one ties into the middle and the other two at the ends. If four people are on a team, form a "z" with the rope and expand the "z" fully, keeping the end and the bight on each "side" of the "z" even. Tie in to the bights and the ends. Connect to the rope, the standard practice is with a locking carabiner on a figure-eight loop to the harness. This allows quick detachment of the rope for rescue purposes. The appropriate standing part of the rope is then clipped to the chest harness carabiner. Attach the Prusik as required. Prusik Knots; they are attached to the climbing rope for all glacier travel. The Prusiks are used as a self-belay technique to maintain a tight rope between individuals, to anchor the climbing rope for crevasse rescue, and for self-rescue in a crevasse fall. The Prusik slings are made from the 7-millimeter by 6-foot and 7-millimeter by 12-foot ropes. The ends of the ropes are tied together, forming endless loops or slings, with double fisherman's knots. Form the Prusik knot on the rope in front of the climber. An overhand knot can be tied into the sling just below the Prusik to keep equal tension on all the Prusik wraps. Attach this sling to the locking carabiner at the tie in point on the harness. An ascender can replace a Prusik sling in most situations. All personnel wear a seat/chest combination harness. The rope should be kept relatively tight either by Prusik belay or positioning of each person. At points of obvious weakness in the snow bridges, the members may decide to belay each other across the crevasse using one of the established belay techniques. If a rope team consists of only two people, the rope should be divided into thirds, as for a four-person team. The team members tie into the middle positions on the rope, leaving a third of the rope between each team member and a third on each end of the rope. The remaining "thirds" of the rope should be coiled and either carried in the rucksack, attached to the rucksack, or carried over the head and shoulder. This gives each climber an additional length of rope that can be used for crevasse rescue, should one men fall through and require another rope. If necessary, this excess end rope can be used to connect to another rope team for safer travel. Generally, the rope team members will move at the same time. If a team member falls into a crevasse, the remaining members go into team arrest. The simplest and most common method of rescue is for the team to pull them up.
Follow and probe the margin of a crevasse until a more resistant portion of the bridge is reached. When moving parallel to a crevasse, all members of the team should keep well back from the edge and follow parallel but offset courses. A crevasse should be crossed at right angles to its length. If the stability of the snow bridge is under question, they should proceed as follows for a team of three: distribute the weight over as wide an area as possible. Do not stamp the snow. Many fragile bridges can be crossed by lying down and crawling. Skis or snowshoes help distribute the weight nicely. The leader and second take up a position at least 10 feet back from the edge. The third goes into a self-belay behind the second and remains on a tight rope. The second belays the leader across. The boot-ax belay should be used only if the snow is deep enough for the ax to be inserted up to the head and firm enough to support the load. A quick ice ax anchor should be placed for the other belays. Deadman or equalizing anchors should be used when necessary. The leader should move forward, carefully probing the snow, to the far side of the crevasse, he continues as far across as possible so number two will have room to get across without number one having to move. The third assumes the middle person's belay position. The middle can be belayed across by both the first and last. Once the second is across, he assumes the belay position. Number one moves out on a tight rope and anchors in to a self-belay. Number two belays number three across.
Arresting and Securing a Fallen Climber; The length of the fall depends upon how quickly the fall is arrested and where in the bridge the break takes place. If the fall occurs close to the near edge of the crevasse, it usually can be checked before the climber has fallen more than 6 feet. However, if the person was almost across, the fall will cause the rope to cut through the bridge, and then even an instantaneous check will not prevent a deeper fall. A fall through a snow bridge results either in the person becoming jammed in the surface hole, or in being suspended in the crevasse by the rope. If the leader has fallen only partially through the snow bridge, he is supported by the snow forming the bridge and should not thrash about as this will only enlarge the hole and result in deeper suspension. All movements should be slow and aimed at rolling out of the hole and distributing weight over the most area. Should a team member other than the leader experience a fall, the rescue procedure will be same as for the leader, only complicated slightly by the position on the rope. The following scenario is an example of the sequence of events that take place after a fall by the leader in a three-person team. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is # 1.) Once the fall has been check/halted by the team arrest, the entire load must be placed on # 2 to allow # 3 to anchor the rope. Number 3 slowly releases his portion of the load onto # 2, always being prepared to go back into self-arrest should # 2's position begin to fail. Once # 2 is confident that he can hold the load, # 3 will proceed to # 2's position, using the Prusik as a self belay so the rope remains reasonably tight between # 2 and 3. When # 3 reaches # 2's position he will establish a bombproof anchor 3 to 10 feet in front of # 2 (on the load side), depending on how close # 2 is to the lip of the crevasse. This could be either a dead man or a two-point equalized anchor, as a minimum. Number 3 connects the rope to the anchor by tying a Prusik with his long Prusik sling onto the rope leading to # 1. An overhand knot should be tied into the long Prusik sling to shorten the distance to the anchor, and attached to the anchor with a carabiner. The Prusik knot is adjusted toward the load. Number 2 can then release the load of # 1 onto the anchor. Number 2 remains connected to the anchor and monitors the anchor. A fixed loop can be tied into the slack part of the rope, close to # 2, and attached to the anchor (to back up the Prusik knot). Number 3 remains tied in, but continues forward using a short Prusik as a self-belay. He must now quickly check on the condition of # 1 and decide which rescue technique will be required to retrieve him. If # 3 should fall through a crevasse, the procedure is the same except that # 1 assumes the role of # 3. Normally, if the middle person should fall through, # 1 would anchor the rope by himself. Number 3 would place the load on # 1's anchor, then anchor his rope and move forward with a Prusik self-belay to determine the condition of # 2. Note # 1 position is in the direction of travel, however # 3 position is better tested for strength. Use of Additional Rope Teams; Another rope team can assist. The # 1 of the assisting rope team should move to a point between the fallen climber and the arresting team members. The assisting team can attach to the arresting team's rope with a Prusik or ascender and both rope teams' can pull simultaneously. If necessary, a belay can be initiated by the arresting team while the assisting team pulls. The arresting team member closest to the fallen climber should attach the long Prusik to themselves and the rope leading to the fallen climber, and the assisting team can attach their Prusik or ascender between this long Prusik and the arresting team member. As the assisting team pulls, the Prusik belay will be managed by the arresting team member at the long Prusik. Snow bridges are usually strongest at the edge of the crevasse, and a fall is most likely to occur some distance away from the edge. In some situations, a crevasse fall will occur at the edge of the snow bridge, on the edge of the ice. If a fall occurs away from the edge, the rope usually cuts deeply into the snow, thus greatly increasing friction for those pulling from above. In order to reduce friction, place padding, such as an ice ax, ski, ski pole, or backpack/rucksack, under the rope and at right angles to the stress. Push the padding forward as far as possible toward the edge of the crevasse, thus relieving the strain on the snow. Ensure the padding is anchored from falling into the crevasse for safety of the fallen climber. Prusik Ascending Technique; There may be times when the remaining members of a rope team can render little assistance to the person in the crevasse. If poor snow conditions make it impossible to construct a strong anchor, the rope team members on top may have to remain in self-arrest. Other times, it may just be easier for the fallen climber to perform a self-rescue. Fixed Rope; if the fallen climber is not injured, he may be able to climb out on a fixed rope. Number 1 clips # 3's rope to himself. He then climbs out using # 3's rope as a simple fixed line while # 2 takes up the slack in # 1's rope through the anchor Prusik for a belay. (Figure 10-26) shows the rope configuration NOTE the long Prusik knot would be above the harness knot so one could raise the leg and knot before applying pressure to left yourself.) The technique is performed as follows: The fallen climber removes his pack and lets it hang below from the drop cord. The individual slides their short Prusik up the climbing rope as far as possible. The long Prusik is attached to the rope just below the short Prusik. The double fisherman's knot is spread apart to create a loop large enough for one or both feet. The fallen climber inserts his foot/feet into the loop formed allowing the knot to cinch itself down. The individual stands in the foot loop, or "stirrup," of the long sling. With his weight removed from the short Prusik, it is slid up the rope as far as it will go. The individual then hangs from the short Prusik while he moves the long Prusik up underneath the short Prusik again. The procedure is repeated, alternately moving the Prusiks up the rope, to ascend the rope. Once the crevasse lip is reached, the individual can simply grasp the rope and pull himself over the edge and out of the hole. Besides being one of the simplest rope ascending techniques, the short Prusik acts as a self-belay and allows the climber to take as long a rest as he wants when sitting in the harness. The rope should be detached from the chest harness carabiner to make the movements less cumbersome. However, it is sometimes desirable to keep the chest harness connected to the rope for additional support. In this case the Prusik knots must be "on top" of the chest harness carabiner so they can be easily slid up the rope without interference from the carabiner. The long Prusik sling can be routed through the chest harness carabiner for additional support when standing up in the stirrup.
Figure 10-26 Prusik ascending technique
Z-Pulley Hauling System; (Figure 10-27) if a fallen climber is injured or unconscious, he will not be able to offer any assistance in the rescue. The basic Z rig is a "3-to-1" system, providing mechanical advantage to reduce the workload on the individuals operating the haul line. In theory, it only takes about 33 lbs of pull on the haul rope to raise a 100 lbs load. In actual field use, some of this mechanical advantage is lost to friction as the rope bends sharply around carabiners and over the crevasse lip. The use of mechanical rescue pulleys can help reduce this friction in the system. The following describes rigging of the system. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is number 1.) After the rope team has arrested and secured # 1 to the anchor, and they have decided to install the Z rig, # 2 will attach himself to the anchor without using the rope and clear the connecting knot used. Number 3 remains connected to the rope. The slack rope exiting the anchor Prusik is clipped into a separate carabiner attached to the anchor. A pulley can be used here if available. Number 3 will use # 2's short Prusik to rig the haul Prusik. He moves toward the crevasse lip (still on his own self-belay) and ties # 2's short Prusik onto # 1's rope (load rope) as close to the edge as possible. Another carabiner (and pulley if available) is clipped into the loop of the haul Prusik and the rope between # 3's belay Prusik and the anchor is clipped (or attached through the pulley). Number 3's rope becomes the haul rope. Number 3 then moves towards the anchor and # 2. Number 2 could help pull if necessary but first would connect to the haul rope with a Prusik just as # 3. If the haul Prusik reaches the anchor before the victim reaches the top, the load is simply placed back on the anchor Prusik and # 3 moves the haul Prusik back toward the edge. The system is now ready for another haul.
CAUTION; The force applied to the fallen climber through use of the Z-pulley system can be enough to destroy the harness-to-rope connection or injure the fallen climber if excess force is applied to the pulling rope. With the "3-to-1" system, the load (fallen climber) will be raised 1 foot for every 3 feet of rope taken up during the haul.
The Z-pulley adds more load on the anchor due to the mechanical advantage. The anchor should be monitored for the duration of the rescue.
Figure 10-27 Z-pulley hauling system
APPENDIX COE rule # 11
BALLISTICS is a science dealing with the motion and flight characteristics of projectiles. Ballistics can be divided into three distinct types: Internal the interior workings of a weapon and the functioning of its ammunition. External the flight of the bullet from the muzzle to the target. Terminal what happens to the bullet after it hits the target.
Terminology
Dope; is the settings on the sights of a weapon.
Trajectory; as the projectile travels downrange, the velocity is decreased by air drag, giving way to the inevitable force of gravity. These effects create trajectory i.e. the relationship of a projectile and the line of sight at any given range (normally expressed in inches).
Apex, aka Midrange Trajectory or Maximum Ordinate; is the point where the projectile is at its highest in relation to the line of sight. This point must be known to utilize Kentucky windage.
Bullet Drop; how far the bullet drops from the muzzle aka the line of departure to the point of impact.
Line of Sight; is an imaginary straight line extending from the shooter's eye through the telescopic sight, or rear and front sight, to the point of aim on target.
Zero Range; is where the projectile intersects the line of sight. It occurs at two points-one on the way up and one on the way down.
Muzzle Velocity; the speed of the bullet as it leaves the barrel, measured in feet per second. It varies according to temperature, and humidity. The bullet reaches its maximum velocity 76 feet from the muzzle and slows down from there.
Time of Flight; time it takes the bullet to reach the target.
Retained Velocity; the speed of the bullet when it reaches the target.
Efficiency of the bullet aka bullet ballistic coefficient; the imaginary perfect bullet is rated as being (1.00). Match bullets range from .500 to about .600. The 7.62-mm special ball (M118) is rated at .530 (Table 3-2).
Internal Ballistics; all 5.56-mm cartridges can be fired safely in M16A1, A2 and the M4 carbine. There are internal differences that affect firing accuracy. 5.56 mm, M193 ball 0.75 in, M196 tracer 0.90 in, M855 ball 0.900 in, M856 tracer 1.15 in. With its increase in length, weight, and configuration the M855 bullet requires different twists in the barrels, lands and grooves to stabilize the bullet in flight. The M16A1 has a 1:12 barrel twist (the bullet rotates once for every 12 inches of travel down the barrel). The M16A2/A3/A4 and the M4 carbine have a 1:7 barrel twist. The A1 does not put enough spin on the heavier M855 to stabilize it, causing erratic performance and inaccuracy (1 foot shot groups at 300 feet and 6 foot shot groups at 900 feet)
note difference in accuracy data in rule # 8 COE.
With a M16A2 zeroed with M855 ammunition and then re-zeroed with M193 ammunition at 300 meters. There is practically no difference between the trajectories or accuracy of the rounds to a range of 500 meters. The M16A2 firing M855 or 56 ammunition are more effective at ranges out to and beyond 500 meters due to a better stabilization of the round.
External Ballistics; effects on the bullets trajectory.
Drag; is the effect the atmosphere has on the bullet. Factors affecting drag i.e. density of the air are temperature, altitude/barometric pressure, humidity, efficiency of the bullet, and wind. These factors decrease the speed of the bullet. The less dense the air, the less drag and vice versa.
Temperature; deviation from standard daytime temperature (59 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees Celsius) affects bullet trajectory. As the temperature rises, the air density is lowered. Since there is less resistance, velocity increases and the point of impact rises. This is in relation to the temperature at which the rifle was zeroed i.e. compared to dope expected. A 20-degree change equals a one-minute elevation change in the strike of the bullet. When ammunition sits in direct sunlight, the burn rate of powder is increased, resulting in greater muzzle velocity and higher impact. A cooler temperature causes lower chamber pressure, which reduces the initial/muzzle velocity.
Altitude/barometric pressure; the greater the altitude, the thinner the air and the longer the bullet will travel (with a correspondingly flatter trajectory). Higher altitude equals less air pressure, air less dense, less drag, thus, the bullet is more efficient and impacts higher. With a rifle zeroed at sea level impact will be the point of aim at sea level. However, when zeroed at sea level and fired at an altitude of 5,000 feet (range 700 m) impact is 1.6 minutes higher. Each 5,000-foot elevation will raise the strike of the bullet 1/2 to 1 minute of angle. (NJD up to 15000 feet where every thing changes).
Humidity; varies along with the altitude and temperature. When humidity goes up, impact goes down; when humidity goes down, impact goes up. A 20 % change in humidity equals about one minute as a rule of thumb.
Gravity; at extended ranges, the sniper must compensate for this through elevation adjustments or hold-off techniques. The sniper actually aims the muzzle of his rifle above his line of sight. The force of gravity on a bullet is constant regardless of its weight, shape, or velocity. However the greater the bullets angle from the vertical, the more effect gravity will have on its trajectory.
Wind; wind poses the biggest problem. The effect that wind has on the bullet increases with range. This is due mainly to the bullet's slowing velocity combined with a longer flight time, allows the wind to have more effect. The result is a loss of stability. Flag method; a common method of estimating the velocity of the wind during training is to watch the range flags. The sniper determines the angle between the flag and pole, in degrees, then divides by the constant number 4. The result gives the approximate velocity in miles per hour. If no flag is visible, the sniper holds a piece of paper, grass, or some other light material at shoulder level, then drops it. He then points directly at the spot where it lands and divides the angle between his body and arm by the constant number 4. This gives him the approximate wind velocity in miles per hour. Mirage method; with the telescope, the sniper can see a mirage as long as there is a difference in ground and air temperatures. In general, velocity of the wind, up to about 12 mph, can be readily determined by observing the mirage. Beyond that speed, the movement of the mirage is too fast for detection of minor changes. The effect is that the wind bows or tilts the shimmers of the mirage like grass being blown by wind. Shimmers appear horizontal at about 8-12 mph. Since the wind nearest to midrange has the greatest effect on the bullet, he tries to determine velocity at that point. He focuses on an object at midrange, and then places the scope back onto the target without readjusting the focus. He can also focus on the target, then back off the focus one-quarter turn counterclockwise. This makes the target appear fuzzy, but the mirage will be present. As observed through the telescope, the mirage appears to move with the same velocity as the wind, except when blowing straight into or away from the scope. Then, the mirage gives the appearance of moving straight upward with no lateral movement. This is called a boiling mirage. A boiling mirage may also be seen when the wind is constantly changing direction. For example, a full-value wind blowing from 9 to 3 o'clock suddenly changes direction. The mirage will appear to stop moving from left to right and present a boiling appearance. When this occurs, the inexperienced observer directs the sniper to fire with the "0" windage. Unless there is a no-value wind, the sniper must wait until the boil disappears. Beaufort wind scale: 0-1 mph Calm, smoke rises vertically. 1-3 mph Light air, weather vain inactive, smoke drifts, felt on moist face or skin, sea ripples resembling fish scales. 4-7 mph Light breeze, leaves move on plants may rustle, small wavelets crest have glassy appearance. 8-12 Gentle breeze, leafs and small twigs, loose papers, light flags extended, long wave lets crests begin to break, scattered white caps. 13-18 mph Moderate breeze, small branches sway, dust, fairly frequent white caps. 19-24 mph Fresh breeze, small trees and tops of bushes. Crest braking, wavelets on inland waters. 24-31 Strong breeze, large branches sway, felt pushing against body, whistling heard in utility wires, umbrellas to difficult to use, white foam streaks everywhere some spray. 32-38 mph Moderate gale, whole trees sway, difficult to walk against, foam with waves begins to brown in streaks along direction of wind. 39-46 mph Fresh gale, twigs break off high waves of great length, large streaks. 47-54 mph Strong gales, light damage to buildings, shingles blow off roofs, crest begin to roll over, spray may effect visibility. 55-63 mph Whole gale/storm, seldom experienced inland, trees up rooted, crest large and over hanging, foam in great patches, sea takes on white appearance. Tumbling of seas becomes heavy and shock like. 64-73 mph Storm, midsize ships can be for a time lost behind waves. Everywhere the edges of the wave crest are brown. 74 mph Hurricane, air filled with spray and foam, sea completely white. Category 1) 74-95 mph weak surge 4’-5’, Cat. 2) 96-110 mph moderate surge 6’-8’, Cat. 3) 111-130 mph strong surge 9-12’, Cat. 4) 131-155 mph very strong surge 13’-18’, Cat. 5) above 155 mph devastating surge above 18’. Definition of wind speeds, based on wind having one minute sustained surge. Otherwise considered gust. West of international date line AKA typhoons. In lower latitudes move west or N/W at 10-15mph. At 25-30 degrees N latitude direction changes to N/E with increased forward speed. Western altitude. Eastern pacific season June 1- November 30.
Hurincane
Dennis eye direct hit on Havana wind 10-20 mph reduction or increase every 50-100 miles distance.
Emily not lg. in area size cat. ¾ winds 75 mph out to 35 miles rg. Tropical storm strength 140 mi rg.
Terminal Ballistics.
Bullet penetration depends on the range, velocity, bullet characteristics, and target material. Greater penetration does not always occur at close range with certain materials since the high velocity of the 5.56-mm bullet causes it to disintegrate upon impact.
Bullet Dispersion:
Increase of Shot-Group Size. Just as the distance covered by a minute of angle (MOA) increases each time the range increases, a shot group can be expected to do the same. If there are 2.54 cm between bullets on a 25-meter target, there will be an additional 2.54 cm of dispersion for each additional 25 meters of range. A 2.54-cm group at 25 meters (about 3.5 MOA) is equal to a 25.4-cm shot group at 250 meters. NJD or a 30.5 cm shot group at 300 meters.
CONVERSION OF WIND VELOCITY TO MOA
All telescopic sights have windage adjustments that are graduated in MOA or fractions thereof. A MOA (a term used to discuss shot dispersion) is the standard unit of measurement used in adjusting sights. It is also used to indicate accuracy. Measured using the muzzle as a base to the impact point. A circle is divided into 360 degrees or 6400 mils. Each degree is further divided into 60 minutes (1/60th of a degree); therefore, a circle contains 21,600 minutes. NJD 1 degree equals 17.8 mils and 1 mil equals 3.3 MOA. (1 MOA also equals 1/17.8 of 1mil). A MOA would cover 2.54 cm (1 inch) at a distance of 91.4 meters (100 yards/300 feet). When the range is increased to 182.8 meters (200 yards/600 feet), the angle covers twice the distance. 1 MOA = 5 inches at 500 meters. 8.6 inches at 750 meters, 11.5 inches at 1000 meters.
Windage; example: The sniper fires at a 600-meter target with windage setting on 0; the round impacts 15 inches right of center. He will then add 2 1/2 minutes left windage to dial (L-2 1/2).
Table 5-3 Calculated adjusted aiming point based
on wind speed (full value)
Elevation; example: The target distance is 600 meters; the sniper sets the elevation dial to 6. The sniper fires and the round hits the target 6 inches low of center. He then adds one minute (one click) of elevation (+ 1). NJD with the M193 mid range (highest point of trajectory) is 250 meters. Max effective range 460 meters. Bullet drop is about 5 inches from 460 to 500 meters. And additional 5 inches to 600 meters. And an additional 10 inches at 700 meters. After that forget it. With M855 mid range is approximately 400 meters. After that bullet drop is 5 inches at 500 meters, 5 additional at 600 meters, 10 additional at 7/8/900 meters for a total drop from zenith (mid range) of 6 feet at 1000 meters.
Hold off is shifting the point of aim to achieve a desired point of impact. Certain situations, such as multiple targets at varying ranges and rapidly changing winds, do not allow proper windage and elevation adjustments.
When the sniper fires at a target at ranges greater than the set range (dope on the weapon) his bullet will hit below the point of aim. At lesser ranges, his bullet will hit higher than the point of aim. If the sniper understands the trajectories and bullet drop over maximum ranges, he will be a much better sniper. For example, dope sit for 500 meters, and another target appears at 600 meters. The holdoff would be 25 inches above the center of mass in order to hit the center of mass. If another target were to appear at 400 meters, aim 14 inches below the center of mass. The vertical mil dots on the M3A scope's reticle can be used as aiming points for elevation holdoffs. Example, target at 500 meters, dope set at 400 meters, place the first mil dot (that is the one above horizontal cross hair) 5 inches lower along the vertical line on the target's center mass. This gives the sniper a 15-inch holdoff at 500 meters.
For general (rule of thumb) adjustments use the Clicks formula is yards in hundreds, multiplied by winds in MPH, divided by a constant. Constants are 15 for 100-500 yards, 14 for 600, 13 for 700-800, 12 for 900, and 11 for 1k. Ex; 10 mph winds, range 400 yards. You multiply 10 x 4. Your yards are figured in whole hundreds, 10 x 4 = 40 answer is divided by 15. Ex: answer remainder is two so two clicks windage added to weapon. If the target is 700 meters away and the wind velocity is 10 mph, the formula is 7x10 (over)/13 = 5.38 minutes or 5 ½ minutes. Note if wind is ½ value you would divide answer by two or cut it in half, after 15. Winds blowing directly at you or from stern have zero value. 45 degrees angle is a ½ value, 90 degrees full value.
Target appearance, Front Sight Post Method; man size target at 175 yards, appears to be same width as front sight post. 300 yards ½ as wide. If the target is 1/4 the width of the front sight post, then the target is approximately 600 yards away. Appears twice as wide at 90 yards. At 200 meters a human size target is clear and details can be seen. At 300 meters still clear, but no details can be seen. At 400 meters outline is clear; however, the target itself is blurry. At 500 meters the body tapers and the head disappears. At 600 meters the body resembles a wedge shape.
The front sight post covers about 1.6 or 1.5 inches at 15 meters and about 16/15 inches at 150 meters.
NOTE; NJD math is a real weak point of mine, so I hope these formulas are correct but can not vouch for them.
Mil-Relation Formula; this method uses a mil-scale reticle located in the M19 binoculars (Figure 4-19) or in the M3A scope (Figure 4-20). The team must know the target size in inches or meters. Keep a data book of measurements. Vehicles; for dimensions use the height of road wheels. Length of main gun tubes. Urban environment; size of doorways, windows. Width of streets and lanes (average width of a paved lanes in the US is 8 feet). All measurements are converted into constants and computed with different mil readings. (Examples, six foot man, height in mils 1, standing 2k or setting 1k. H in M 1.5, standing 1333 or setting 666. So 2/1k/500, 2.5/800/400, 3/666/333, 3.5/571/266, 4/500/250, 4.5/444/222, 5/400/200, 5.5/364/182, 6/333/167, 6.5/308/154, 7/266/143). (To convert inches to meters, multiply the number of inches by .0254.) With targets entrenched in bunkers or in dense vegetation, if you can’t distinguish the bottom of a target, estimation should be halved. Then compare the target size to the mil-scale reticle and use the following formula:
Photos edited
Laser range finders; when the sniper team has access to a laser observation set (AN/GVS-5) it should always be used. When aiming the laser support it much the same as a weapon to ensure accuracy. If the target is too small, aiming the laser at a larger object near the target will suffice. Range Card Method; is quick and with laser range finders used to produce can be very accurate.
The old 100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method; to use this method, you must be able to visualize a distance of 100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, Beyond 500 meters, select a point halfway to the object and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to find the range to the object. Terrain with much dead space limits accuracy.
APPENDIX Safeguard
Abandoning ship or aircraft at sea; Note the difference between true and magnetic north. Your last position latitude and longitude. Last heading and speed. Direction and speed of prevailing winds, and currents. Location of shipping lanes and nearest land. The more people that know information the better. Once ashore during rain fall note the water running with slope, it is a good indicator of the lay of the land.
Note first three minutes and last eight minutes of flight is when most aircraft crashes accrue. You usually have 90 seconds tow get out of survivable crash.
Disaster relief; immediate needs are open roads, check points, information centers, photo, and berry (lye) or burn the dead or use dry ice to store. DNA, finger prints, dental records. Information gathered on survivors too. Treat or get read of standing water (bleach or purifying tabs). Laundry and disinfection facilities. One shower head per 3 to 30 people.
Remember where you are. Relax, remain clam, familiarity breads security. Survival planning, through up temporary shelter to separate yourself from elements. This will enable you to think clearly. You should rest until the shock and fatigue were off. Leave extensive planning till later. Divide food supplies 2/3 for first time period, 1/3 for last. Low on water cut back on eating. Body uses water to carry off excess waist. Lack of water will cause dehydration. Deciding weather to move or stay. Move if you’re certain of your location and in what direction and how far to help. You have enough supplies for trip. After waiting long enough for help. Leaving base mark paths with bent brush, notches or rocks. Plan and make your way carefully do not dash blindly forward. Undue haste makes waist. Do not take unnecessary risk. Remember that nature and the elements are neither your friend or foe, they are actually disinterested. Every environment has its own physical condition and rhythm. Noises, civil traffic, animal’s, birds, learn from animals, they can also give your present’s away, note act like the natives.
In survival mode you must not leave evidence like picked leafs, as a sing of your eating etc.
The quicker you can butcher a deer the better, an expert butcher ½ hour for a full grown cow. Intestines are dropped into pre-dug pit. All the meat would fit in two Alice packs.
Smoke dry meat under a tent to make biltong or jerky.
Blocks of Hexamine for fuel.
Disasters;
Kit;
Can and bottle openers. Camp stoves and oven mitts, paper plates and utensils, towelettes. Plastic trash bags, a mop and bucket. A clothesline and pins. Chain saw.
Chlorine bleach or tincture of iodine. Lime to sterilize garbage. Cat litter.
First aid kit;
Hypoallergenic adhesive tape. Scissors tweezers, needle moistened towelettes, thermometer, tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant. Latex gloves, sunscreen, aspirin, anti diarrhea med, syrup of ipecac (used to induce vomiting and advocated by poison control center) Activated charcoal (used if advocated by poison control center) laxatives. Insulin supply will keep safely for a month at 85 degrees. Have candy or juice handy for insulin reactions.
Buy carbon monoxide alarms.
General tips;
Determine a safe room no windows walls close together.
Pick two places to meet one out side home and another away form neighborhood. Establish an out of town Phone number to relay messages.
Set up system to keep track of people who leave group.
During storm, stay away form windows keep something with you such as a pillow for protection.
Children should help in prep work to allow them to talk about there fears.
Don’t forget to bring your sense of humor.
Fill car’s gas tank and keep it topped off.
Disconnect natural gas and propane to individual appliances at the supply valves near each unit. Locate turn off valves for water, electricity and gas. Do not turn off the main gas line.
Practice fire safely both when refueling generator and when storing gas.
Store gas in a locked area.
Turn off generator and allow to cool before refueling, turn off appliances before restarting generator. Never try generator directly into house wiring, could sock linemen working on lines.
Check battery powered equipment. A 12 volt motorcycle battery can keep your burglar alarm running.
Refill pending prescriptions. List of meds and copy of prescriptions doctors names. Proof of occupancy such as a utility bill.
Make sure your pit has ID tags, micro chip or tattoos carry photo of your pet, reptiles are prohibited at shelters.
Make inventory of possessions. Take pictures or video rooms. Place on disk. In a rugged waterproof container collect medical and property insurance papers immunization records.
If paper work got soaked place it in freezer to arrest ink running prevent mold and mildew until it can be freeze dried by pros. With no electricity separate them and place them out to dry the most critical period for mold growth is the first 10 days. If mold forms don’t try to rub it off, air or freeze dry them. With book spread them out fan wise you can sprinkle cornstarch between the pages. Leave it on for several hours. Then brush it off.
Count number of steps to exits. Elevator cars are located at top of shaft to avoid flood damage or debris. Cover indoor furniture with plastic. Elevate it on blocks or two by fours.
Do not trim braches from trees, they can become projectiles.
Bring in any out door items that could become projectiles, anchor anything you can’t bring in.
Remove external antennas.
To save a tree that has not broken its truck or lost large portions of its roots. Cover roots with blank or burlap water roots and top several times a day. Pools should not be drain in areas of high water table with floods water level could cause pools to pop out of the ground.
Water; figure on using one gallon per person per day. Fill jugs with water freeze as much water as you can. Water heaters hold several gallons of clean water that you can use after storm for sanitary needs. Before storm unhook or shut off water heater from its source. Store water in bath tube, sinks and toilet tank for washing and flushing boil. Sponge the tub with a solution of bleach and water. Cover tube after filling it use four drops of unscented bleach per gallon of water. Use silicone caulking for bathtub and sink drains to make them water tight. Use a thick bead it will pull away cleanly when dry. Store water for only 3 mouths bottled water for only 6 mouths.
With water after boiling you can put oxygen back into it by pouring it back and forth between two clear containers it well taste better. Or you can add 8 drops of liquid bleach per gallon stir and let stand for 30 minutes. Purification tables at sporting good stores or pharmacies.
Turn refrigerator and freezer settings to the coldest levels. Group foods together to conserve cooling in a half full freezer. Freeze water in bottles or bags ¾ full, place in empty spaces of freezer.
WHEN SELECTING A GENERATOR, THERE ARE SEVERAL IMPORTANT FEATURES TO CONSIDER:
Engine life, Run time, Mobility, Noise level, Rated/Surge watts
WATTAGE WORKSHEET;
Watts = volts x AMPs. Rated, or running watts, are the continuous watts needed to keep items running. Surge, or starting watts, are extra watts needed for two to three seconds to start motor-driven products like a refrigerator or band saw. Only motor-driven items have an additional surge requirement. The additional surge watts required may be estimated at 1 - 2x the rated/running watts. A refrigerator that runs on 500 watts could have a surge or start up wattage of 2000. Dryer that runs on 5400 surge 6800. In a typical home, essential items will average 4000-6000 watts of power to run. Since surge watts are only needed during the first few seconds of operation, and in most cases, only one item will start or cycle at the same time, only one additional surge watt item is used to calculate your total surge watt requirement estimate.
Making a worksheet. You will have 3 columns:
a) Items i.e. tool or appliance
b) Rated (running) watts
c) Additional surge (starting) watts
1) Select the items you wish to power at the same time. Note the rated watts and additional surge watt requirements. 2) Add the rated watts for all items.
3) Select the one individual item with the highest number of additional surge watts. Take this number, add it to your total rated (running) watts, and enter the total in the Total Surge Watts box. You will then have a total for the total rated (running) watts and a total for the total surge watts.
NOTE IT MIGHT BE BETTER TO ORGANIZE THESE ITEMS FROM THE ONES THAT USE THE MOST TO THE ITEMS THAT USE THE LEAST.
WATTAGE REFERENCE GUIDE
Light bulb 75 watts
Quartz Halogen Work Light 1000 watts
Security System 80 watts
Garage Door Opener -1/2 HP 480 running watts & 520 starting watts
Garage door opener 1700
Deep freezer
500 running watts & 500 starting watts
Refrigerator/Freezer
800 running watts & 1600 starting watts
Microwave Oven
1000 watts
Coffee Maker
1500 watts
Electric Stove - single element
1500 watts
Dishwasher - hot dry
1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts
Iron
1200 watts
Washing Machine
1150 running watts & 2250 starting watts
Clothes Dryer
5400 running watts & 1350 starting watts
Hair Dryer 1250 watts
Vacuum 1200
Stereo Receiver
450 watts
Radio
300 watts
AM/FM clock radio 100 watts
DVD/CD player 100 watts
VCR 100 watts
Color Television 27" - 500 watts
P/C with 17" monitors
800 watts
Fax machine
65 watts
Copy Machine 1600 watts
Laser Printer 950 watts
Inkjet Printer
80 watts
Electric water heater - 40 gallon 4000 running watts
Space Heater
1800 watts
Heat Pump 4700 running watts & 4500 starting watts
Furnace Fan Blower 1/2 HP 800 running watts & 1300 starting watts
Table Fan - 14"
200 running watts & 400 starting watts
Ceiling Fan
800 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Window AC - 10000 BTU
1200 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Window AC - 12000 BTU
3250 running watts & 3950 starting watts
Central AC - 10000 BTU
1500 running watts & 4500 starting watts
Sump pump 800 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Water Pump (well or pool) 1/3 HP
1000 running watts & 2000 starting watts
Airless Sprayer - 1/3 HP
600 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Reciprocating saw
960 watts
Electric drill - 1/2 HP
1000 running watts & 1000 starting watts
Circular Saw - 7 1/2 HP
1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts
Miter saw - 10"
1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Planer/Jointer - 6"
1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Table/radial arm saw 10"
2000 running watts & 2000 starting watts
Air compressor - 1 1/2 HP
2500 running watts & 2500 starting watts
Light Bulb (multiply the watts times the number of bulbs in your house) 60 (each) 0
Quartz Halogen Work light 300 Watts 300 0
Coffee Maker 1000 0
Oven 3,410 0
Refrigerator/Freezer 600 2,100
Toaster Oven1 200 0
Electric Range (8-inch element) 40 0
Home Theater System 625 0
Television 400 0
Radio 100 0
Microwave Oven 1,000 Watts 1,000 0
X-Box, Game Cube, Play station 40 0
Ceiling Fan 800 2,000
Air Conditioning (Central) 10,000 BTUs 1,500 3,000
Air Conditioning (Central) 24,000 BTUs 3,800 4,950
Air Conditioning (Window) 10,000 BTUs 1,200 1,800
Furnace Fan 1/4 Horsepower 600 400
Furnace Fan 1/2 Horsepower 875 1,475
Dishwasher 400 0
Clothes Dryer 5,400 1,350
Curling Iron1 500 0
Hair Dryer 1,250 Watts 1,250 0
Iron 1 200 0
Washing Machine 1,150 2,250
Desktop Computer 800 0
Fax 250 0
Laptop Computer 600 0
Printer 950 0
Security System 500 0
Garage Door Opener 1/2 Horsepower 875 2,350
Air Compressor 1 Horsepower 1,500 3,000
Pressure Washer 1,200 2,400
Electric Drill 3/8-inch, 4 Amps 440 600
Circular Saw 7-1/4-inch 1,400 2,300
Table Saw 10-inch 2,000 2,000
Chainsaw 1,200 1,200
Jig Saw 720 1,800
Router 600 1,500
Orbital Sander 600 1,800
Lawn Mower 1,400 2,920
String Trimmer 600 900
Edger 960 1,400
WATTAGE REFERENCE GUIDE
HOME
Light bulb
75 watts
Deep freezer
500 running watts & 500 starting watts
Sump pump
800 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Refrigerator/Freezer
800 running watts & 1600 starting watts
Water Well Pump 1/3 HP
1000 running watts & 2000 starting watts
HEATING/COOLING
Space Heater
1800 watts
Table Fan - 14"
200 running watts & 400 starting watts
Ceiling Fan
800 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Furnace Fan Blower 1/2 HP
800 running watts & 1300 starting watts
Window AC - 10000 BTU
1200 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Window AC - 12000 BTU
3250 running watts & 3950 starting watts
Central AC - 10000 BTU
1500 running watts & 4500 starting watts
Heat Pump
4700 running watts & 4500 starting watts
KITCHEN
Microwave Oven
1000 watts
Coffee Maker
1500 watts
Electric Stove - single element
1500 watts
Dishwasher - hot dry
1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts
FAMILY ROOM
DVD/CD Player
100 watts
VCR
100 watts
Stereo Receiver
450 watts
Color Television
27" - 500 watts
LAUNDRY ROOM
Iron
1200 watts
Washing Machine
1150 running watts & 2250 starting watts
Clothes Dryer
5400 running watts & 1350 starting watts
OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Personal computer with 17" monitor
800 watts
Fax maching
65 watts
Laser Printer
950 watts
Inkjet Printer
80 watts
Copy Machine
1600 watts
OTHER
Security System
80 watts
AM/FM clock radio
100 watts
Garage Door Opener -1/2 HP
480 running watts & 520 starting watts
Hair Dryer
1250 watts
Electric water heater - 40 gallon
4000 watts
DO-IT-YOURSELF JOBSITE
Quartz Halogen Work Light
1000 watts
Airless Sprayer - 1/3 HP
600 running watts & 1200 starting watts
Reciprocating saw
960 watts
Electric drill - 1/2 HP
1000 running watts & 1000 starting watts
Circular Saw - 7 1/2 HP
1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts
Miter saw - 10"
1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Planer/Jointer - 6"
1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts
Table/radial arm saw 10"
2000 running watts & 2000 starting watts
Air compressor - 1 1/2 HP
2500 running watts & 2500 starting watts
Radio Frequency List; Common radio frequency bands include the following:
AM radio - 535 kilohertz to 1.7 megahertz
Short wave radio - bands from 5.9 megahertz to 26.1 megahertz
Citizens band (CB) radio - 26.96 megahertz to 27.41 megahertz
Television stations - 54 to 88 megahertz for channels 2 through 6
FM radio - 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz
Television stations - 174 to 220 megahertz for channels 7 through 13
What is funny is that every wireless technology you can imagine has its own little band. There are hundreds of them! For example:
Garage door openers, alarm systems, etc. - Around 40 megahertz
Standard cordless phones: Bands from 40 to 50 megahertz
Baby monitors: 49 megahertz
Radio controlled airplanes: Around 72 megahertz, which is different from...
Radio controlled cars: Around 75 megahertz
Wildlife tracking collars: 215 to 220 megahertz
MIR space station: 145 megahertz and 437 megahertz
Cell phones: 824 to 849 megahertz
New 900-MHz cordless phones: Obviously around 900 megahertz!
Air traffic control radar: 960 to 1,215 megahertz
Global Positioning System: 1,227 and 1,575 megahertz
Deep space radio communications: 2290 megahertz to 2300 megahertz
S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L
S ize up the situation, surroundings, physical condition, equipment
U se all your senses
R emember where you are
V anquish fear and panic
I mprovise and improve
V alue living
A ct like the natives
L ive by your wits
P-38 john wayne can opener
Photo edited
Photo edited
FACES: F) Faith and hope; your own care stay refreshed. Your worst enemy morbid rumination. Vanquish temper something up sets you take a break. Loneliness and boredom can only exist in the absence of affirmative thought and action. Motto illegitimate non carborundum i.e. “don’t let the bastards grind you down”. Value living. Tolerating pain, understanding source of pain well help ease your mind, counter anxiety. Take pride in your ability to take it. Concentrate on job at hand. Cold slows blood flow makes you sleepy. A) Aspirations or goals; realize how activities fit into overall plan of survival. Tell your self, you’re going to live to a certain date, i.e. birthday, x-mass or weekend. Take pride in each accomplishment. Fatigue caused by mental outlook overcome by a change of actively i.e. change eating times. Helping others is great for your health. C) Communications with others, share thoughts, you never known what might spark a great idea. E) Exercise; that is mild exercise, save strength, sleep as much as possible. S) Serenity; this is very important. Meditation, sensitivity and remaining human. A sense of community.
APPENDIX Overall tips Sub terrain.
See appendix TMM&W Caves, Caverns and Tunnel characteristics.
Spoil from the tunnel system is normally distributed over a wide area.
Entrances and exits are concealed, bunkers can be placed over them, and even within the tunnel complex itself, side tunnels are concealed, hidden trapdoors are prevalent, and dead-end tunnels are used to confuse the attacker.
Trapdoors may be used, both at entrances and exits and inside the tunnel complex itself, concealing side tunnels and intermediate sections of a main tunnel. In many cases, a trapdoor will lead to a slight change of direction or a change in level (altitude) of the tunnel, followed by a second trapdoor, a second change of direction, and a third trapdoor opening again into the main tunnel. Trapdoors are of several types: They may be concrete covered by dirt, hard packed dirt reinforced by wire, or a “basin” type consisting of a frame filled with dirt. This latter type is particularly difficult to locate in that probing will not reveal the presence of the trapdoor unless the outer frame is struck by the probe. Trapdoors covering entrances/exits are generally a minimum of 100 meters apart. Air vents, water locks and Booby traps may be used extensively, booby traps both inside and outside entrance/exit trapdoors.
Two members of a team enter the tunnel with wire communications to the surface. Careful mapping of a tunnel complex may reveal other hidden entrances as well as the location of adjacent tunnel complexes and underground defensive systems. Constant communication between the tunnel and the surface is essential to facilitate tunnel mapping and exploitation. As the team moves through the tunnel, they monitor the bobble of their level, compass headings and distances traversed all are relayed to the surface.
Small caliber pistols or pistols with silencers are the weapons of choice in tunnels
TA-1 telephone - two each
One-half mile field wire on doughnut roll
APPENDIX TRAINING
Training push ups teams one foot on neighbors back of neck other on small of back etc. Shooting at target next to partner. Swimming pool deep slow dives with hands feet handicapped.
Training warm up/practice vs. final test difference being with the final you were all alone.
The appear on one of these balconies in 5 minutes.
USMC crucible combat endurance test. 54 hours, 67 km hike, 150 m low crawl with ammo cans and WIA.
"I MISS THE "OLD WORLD" AND WELL ALWAYS LOVE HIM"
“Let no Marines ghost say if my training had only done its job”
" Give me a million dollars and I well change the world"
" When it comes to persecution and suffering that fairly tale about christ dose not have (S) nothing on me"
" I well bet my lucky start"
“IKYG”
G-(K)night
