Welcome Aboard!

AHOY,


UPDATE 12/21/13, 11:42 HOURS

I am revealing who I am today i.e. posting my name, I am Keith Oeffinger, I was born in San Antonio Texas in 1963. See today's post 12/21/13 .


Update, 01/11/14 12:30 hours;

I would like to say, with only one reply, like three years ago, this blog seems too much like a mirror site to me. And it appears very few patriots are looking back at past posts.

The new “Fragmented Fighting Facts” series of posts that dedicates one post to each Basic rule has now been completed. This series starts with the post tilted “Post # 1, Planning, Preface” that posted on 05/12/13. This series is under the label “Tri-F in progress”. Posts well be updated as I edit or discover additional knowledge thus the series is the most current version of my "Fragmented Fighting Facts" manual. For an old but complete version i.e. all in one post copy. Patriots are welcomed to try viewing one of the “pages” listed in the “special word section” on the starboard side of the blog. I say try due to the fact I’m not sure if they are published i.e. viewable to the general public due to all the issues or HACKING with my blog. There is also a complete copy posted, that is titled, “Tri-F in progress” too, it was posted 11/13/10.

And feel free to fire away with a reply, (sarcasm on).


FLASH REPORT; the “TERRORIST ARE NOT AMONG US, AND NEVER WERE I.E. AL QAEDA IS A STAWL MAN, GHOST”.

The most important lesson that everyone should have taken away from the Boston Marathon bombings was that those young men proved that no al-queda members are in the u.s. Otherwise they too would just go get some presure cookers and had to a parade.

“I AM NOT A TERRORIST” this nation’s worst enemy is FEAR. This fear is being promoted mostly by the back woods, right wing, Christians of this nation. We need to separate church and state, period. And that is of course for the States sake.


I would like patriots to understand that I use the terms "official revealed fact" to mean what everyone is being told by officials, media etc. I use the term "kings truth" to mean what I know or believe to actually be the actual facts. I DO NOT MEAN IT IN A RELIGIOUS WAY. I.E. the term Kings is plural as in those running the show.


Preface for the Fragmented Fighting Facts

Note pink highlighted material is that, that IMO is questionable factually, it maybe an “official revealed fact” that I am questioning. The material may need to be defined i.e. explained more or it could be a personal note. Yellow is location undecided or unedited material i.e. unread that I have not decided on what to keep or not. Green means a change has been made i.e. an update. By noting the green updated highlights a Patriot well not have to read the Fragmented Fighting Facts in its entirety to stay current. Red is important, perhaps the "kings truth".

Newjarheaddean; this is my collection of combat notes. One might call it my anthology of combat tactics, techniques, methods and skills. The note taking began about fourty years ago (I was around 13 years old) with the observation of 10 rules listed with in a book covering the French and Indian i.e. Native American, wars, entitled “Roger’s Rangers”. That’s right the rules that started all this are “Army Ranger” rules, this book was located in the “Westfall” library in San Antonio Texas off of Vance Jackson. I get a kick out of the libraries name due to the general agreement that modern or state vs state warfare started with the singing of the peace treaties at Westphalia. I could not read at the time; however I knew that a list in a book on war would be important. I copied those rules down like a scribe might have written hieroglyphs and had my dad read them to me. . This discovery preceded numerous sources including approximately one hundred books and about a dozen field manuals, of which a few were of WWII era. These were found at libraries, half price bookstores and garage sales. Since going on line in 2007, I have found material on web sites such as “Defense and National Interest” (DNI), “Global security”, “Strategy page” , “Wikipedia” and “Bayonet strength” and “Efour4ever” in the combat lessons learned section. These last two sites cover WWII.

Previously referred to as K.O.O.L.N. (acronym definition, top secret), FLASH REPORTS; I NOW AM TELLING EVERYONE IT STANDS FOR KEITH OEFFINGER'S ORGANIZATION OF LEARNED KNOWLEDGE the joke on me here was I believed Knowledge was spelled with an (N). I was a special education student and did not learn to read until my last year of high school. I have now titled my work “Fragmented Fighting Facts” or “Tri-F”; the name derives from the computer grammar function always alerting me to the fragmented nature of my sentences. This is due to the “just the facts, ma’am” manor the material is written i.e. there has been little if any effort to write in whole sentences or provide context. This is not to say there is no order with Tri-F, in fact there is a theme. I have laid out the information as one might expect a commander or members of a unit to recall it thus utilizing it to conduct a mission.

We start with “Planning”, followed by the section on “Defense”, then there’s “Preparations and conduct of patrols” or “PCP”, and we end with “Conduct of Engagements” or “COE”, i.e. engagements being the term used here for shootouts. Each section of Tri-F consists of numbered “Basic rules”, each basic rule followed by detailed notes that either relate to, explain, or give examples pertaining to the basic rules. As with the general format of Tri-F, each section’s basic rules are laid out as one might need to recall them. This is most obvious in the last section COE starting with basic rule number one, “Flash report”, i.e. actions to take upon contact with the enemy. This sections last basic rule deals with handling POWs.

Keep in mind this is a work in progress; I’m constantly discovering new information to add which in turn still at times requires rearranging things. At the same time, interestingly enough to me, I have not needed to rearrange my original order of the basic rules for quite some time. There are however, two instances where the detailed information fallowing a pair of basic rules became so similar I decided to combine the pair into one basic rule. These two occurrences are noted in footnotes.

Now heed this, out of all the information contained within this work, only an estimated 1% was taught to me while I was serving in the U.S.M.C. Moreover, to put a fine point on it, it’s worth noting I served in Charlie Company, First Battalion, Fifth Marines, First Marine Division, i.e. an Infantry unit. Before my discharge (after only a two year cruse), I attended Jungle Warfare School in the northern training area of Okinawa (for two weeks), Mountain Warfare School in Korea (for one week) and Combat Town Camp Pendleton for MOUT training (for one day). I did not take part in any amphibious training nor did I ever go to Twenty Nine Palms for Desert Warfare training. We did ride around in AAVs once at Camp Pendleton. All in all I would say the only things I missed out on were a beach landing (at Coronado I believe) and a little sun burn, due to the fact that those twenty nine palms, I was told in the early eighties were all located at the front gate of that base. Needless to say, the training did not impress me, and I now know it was not going to get any better as some suggested to me at the time, and still others later claimed that I should have just stayed in longer.

With my position on the lack of training, I do wish to make it perfectly clear that I do support the service women and men in the U.S. armed forces. I also believe them to be as brave as any people on earth, (with the exception of the (Y) generation). My concern is in the way the Infantry especially is being mislead and used. I want people to understand my experience and IMO a lot of evidence suggests Uncle Sam intends to use his infantry in ways that does not include training any generation in the art of “traditional Guerilla combat tactics” i.e. as a “Traditional Commando” would be. I am not talking about “SWAT” team “Close quarter” tactics, like the “Stick dynamic entry”. That tactic should be called the “cluster f**k”. Just call that sort of tactic what it is NYPD (Cops T.V. show bad-boys, bad-boys) in Afghanistan.

The problem is that that tactic was developed by police departments to deal with an objective occupied by drugged up party animals, i.e. untrained civilians. The police never use it in a spur of the minute situation. They use it when the house/objective has been under constant surveillance for mouths in some cases and the police know all manner of information about everyone in the house and the structure and neighborhood in general. The cops choose a time when everyone is pasted out from partying the night before and have long lost any weapons (between the cushions or under the bed) they might have had on them as show pieces during the party. The primary reason for the large numbers of police in close proximity is to make sure the gang does not think the raid is a rival gang “brake in” and thus resist in any way. There is lots of yelling too, thus reinforcing the message that no one is trying to be covert, like one would be to get away with a crime.

This brings up an intriguing observation of mine; that being that by the book an assault should be made from the top down, yet the troops in Afghanistan and elsewhere use the Stick dynamic entry and usually enter from the front door, like a SWAT team. However resent high profile raids show the SWAT teams attacking from the top down. Examples you may recall are the raids on the Shinning path group in Peru in 2000 and the Mumbai raid by Indian forces on the Jewish center in 2008. IMO this proves the existence of what I’ll refer to as a “need to know” training policy, being followed by various governments, the purpose being to limit the number of true Commandos that could become tomorrow’s rebels, apposing corrupt governments. One last thing about the Stick, IMO every single time the regular forces unit conducting one of these foolish Stick dynamic entries comes under fire i.e. runs into resistance, the Stick brakes i.e. the whole unit evacuates and awaits some kind of support form tanks, guns, tubes or air. Bottom line IMO the Stick is used as a probing tactic and is meant to be a moral boosting show peace tactic to make the unit feel as if it has taken a hill, which was nothing more than another empty building, that IMO Intel suggested, was the case before the entry was ordered. Recalling the police policy of long periods of surveillance prior to raids.

It also seems to me that in light of the old saying “you can fight a war with bombs and blockades but only boots on the ground can win it” ( IMO, Uncle Sam has now revised that saying, as fallows) “you can win a war with bombs and blockades, but only the infantry can end the war”, farther more IMO Uncle Sam has gone one more step and decided to use private security companies and local i.e. indigenous people for the infantry role. All this fear of true commandos is all very similar to the “Mujahideen” not being allowed by various governments, to return to their homelands i.e. native nations, after fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan.

And as for the U.S. and other Western nations, training foreigners to fight a counter insurgency goes. IMO this training includes nothing more than police procedures i.e. conducting investigations, forensics, searching individuals and buildings to collect evidence and yes serving warrants, if necessary, with those all mighty “stick” tactics. And of course, lots of “new innovative techniques and tactics” involving CAS and IMO (Old) so called high tech equipment the U.S. Military Industrial Congressional Complex wants to clear out of the warehouses.

All in all IMO Uncle Sam has chosen to put just about all his eggs in one advanced technology system, think Star Wars Storm Troopers or Matrix i.e. the Operator or Morpheus trying to guide Neo and others to safety. IMO it looks something like this; (x) unit go to (x) address, kick in front door, use stairs to your right, go south down hallway to (x) door, it is unlocked, interning room go to (x) window looking out window to the north you will see your target running east though the neighbors garden. All this information and the “live” feeds of target and area of operations would be provided by a fleet of satellites as well as Near space assets that are never mentioned by the media as current military assets and of course there’s the robots, UAVs and a flood of other covertly deployed sensors as well as covert eves dropping of any civilian electronic devices in the Area of operations.

Thus in light of these and similar so called “new innovative, techniques and tactics” (notice the media and governments choice of words “techniques and tactics” as if we’re talking Commando training i.e. why not use some modern high tech terms the system is so eager to introduce us all to normally as a matter of routine), IMO Uncle Sam has placed the traditional Guerrilla combat tactics, on the back burner and is hoping they all go the way of other black arts.

This is not just true of the infantry; let us take a peek at aerial combat. Does anyone out there actually think today’s U.S. pilots are turning and burning, pulling high (G) maneuvers trying to hit the entry windows and get inside the bandits turn. Think any pilot has conducted a yo-yo or split S maneuver lately or made the choice between a single or two-circle fight. Now days its all about stealth, ECM and Smart even autonomous weapons, missiles especially BVR tech. IMO this explains why the U.S. Navy is not concerned with not having a front line fighter equal to the USAF F-22 Raptor. An article I recently read on “Strategy page” mentioned a lot of talk about a Navy F/A-18E at an air show, displaying a little F-22 silhouette decal i.e. a simulated Kill credit symbol/icon. IMO the F/A- 18E did not gun down that kill.

And then everyone knows that just about all now and IMO soon all weapons systems including the bayonet well have a chip in it.

So if the electronics ever fail (maybe due to a shift in the axis of earths electromagnetic field, passed a certain point or perhaps a record size solar flare) IMO it well be the masters of the age-old Guerrilla combat tactics i.e. The Fragmented Fighting Facts Basic Rules that survive, keeping in mind “no one wins”.

I also wish, that those who join the various services where told all this up front i.e. “we do not intend to train you as a traditional Commando”.

Another thing I would like everyone to consider is that; what makes a Marine special is not the training she or he receives, no it’s the steel the youth demonstrates when they choose to join the Marines. Even when compared to the Special Forces, who IMO are only specialists in their particular field, once again mostly high tech specialties and whose ranks are filled with older personnel that have already been serving and have graduated from a boot camp i.e. are aware of the hoop and hype hurry up and wait tactics. And who are then usually chosen i.e. coached into changing their MOS. I am aware of the change in recruitment policy after 2001 allowing for direct entry into the S.F. community. IMO a rarity and IMO it is still not the same as just choosing to go to a Marine Corps Recruit Depot from the start.

Furthermore, to those who just well not accept the truth about the lack of training along the lines of traditional Guerrilla combat tactics. I can now say that I have exchanged comments with a number of Iraqi and Afghanistan combat vets. These comments can be found on the internet if you Google up my call sign, Newjarheaddean also spelled with one (D). IMO it is obvious that the tactics I speak of are news to the vets, some have made commits that proves in combat they were just winging it. And no, I don’t believe that all the vets are observing some kind of code of silence on these tactics including the vets who are against the wars. Unless everyone wants to say that YouTube and other internet companies are conspiring to edit all combat footage that shows these tactics being used and that, the vets are staging other videos that show them (albeit with great bravery) as armatures without a clue and winging it. If anyone ever sees video, showing the tactics listed in Tri-F being used, be sure and provide a link with your comment. I once saw a flash of film on CNN showing combat in Lebanon during the 1980s that showed some of these tactics being used by a Guerrilla fighter. I well also say I do believe that UAV footage is edited by the Pentagon to keep the public from seeing the few but well trained Taliban and other Guerrilla fighters that are using these tactics. Alternatively, maybe people think our professional highly trained well-equipped military is unable to defeat 10 – 20 thousand religious extremist amateur thugs in almost a decade of fighting. All the while killing at least by some estimates 100 a mouth including dozens of top commanders.

Let me also say, on the numbers of U.S. PTSD casualties, i.e. IMO, WIA, (And IMO deserving of a Purple Heart). The Government portrays these cases as a result of fighting a war that is “unlike any other war we have fought before” (LOL). Facing an enemy that is fighting in some mysterious and or cowardly manor that simply cannot be countered by military means. I believe the high numbers are a result of US forces fighting in a manner that is suicidal i.e. pointless and counterproductive to the real world situation. Example; you have a young brave American ready to fight for the nation, while on one of these IMO “Russian roulette parades” someone shoots at the unit from some building, everyone scrambles for cover, as some spray and pray, then after determining the location using SWATS (Soldier Worn Acoustic Targeting Systems) sniper detectors, or one of the many similar vehicle mounted systems the commander calls in some sort of CAS, if someone’s brains have been blow out especially if it was an officer or the location is vague, a real “crowd pleaser” maybe used i.e. 2000 pounder.

IMO this is how 90% of engagements (fought by regular infantry units) are resolved. Special Forces are now and in the feature more and more regular infantry well be using the Matrix. And to those that think this is the exception I say show me the number of WIA or KIA (On either side) by small arms fire i.e. during traditional firefights. Even if one includes sniper fire those figures are really low. So IMO after witnessing all the carnage and innocent civilian life being lost and receiving all those looks from the witnesses, it is the American that realizes it is his unit that is not fighting right.

This is reinforced and really sinks in back in the states when the vet is asked to tell the Commando stories that never occurred and thus the vet must tell the truth i.e. give up the Commando reputation, keep it all inside or start lying. If the first option is chosen that unveiling reality is demoralizing and makes it all not worth it. If either one of the other chooses are made IMO the vet becomes the ticking bomb. And I can tell you all that many times, I have recalled being told once that “when you go home keep your mouth shut about the things we did. If you don’t you well be thought of as a liar or crazy and either which way your life well be over”. That First Sergeant was right, but like my daddy use to say, “He’s right but he does not know why he’s right” i.e. IMO the First Sgt. thought of what we did in terms of remarkable heroic feats. However, IMO certainly since the beginning of the Vietnam era, it is the lack of training i.e. the manner in which our service women and men are fighting that keeps this tragedy going.

I would also suggest the vets of today are just like I was 25 or so years ago in the sense that they know there training is lacking, however, they just cannot explain what’s missing. However unlike me they refuse to accept that old fashion “black arts” are the answer i.e. should be the basis of basic training. And I now know the “Black art” tactics they and I should have been trained in and I can now say, “The PFC that told the Corp it was out of step, now has provided the proof”. What surprises me is that most vets it seems don’t care at all about the tactics I speak of and seem to view me as an unpatriotic “party pooper”, when I’m just a U.S. Marine trying to improve the Corps and save lives. Bottom line IMO the infantry needs to consist of unmarried i.e. undistracted, NO CHILDREN, dedicated true professionals, trained in the tactics listed in Tri-F and many more I am sure exist.

And to those that say “chivalry is for the museums” I say “first we must have peace on earth”.

One Newjarheaddean

“Let no Marines ghost say if my training had only done its job”

" Give me a million dollars and I well change the world"

" When it comes to persecution and suffering that fairly tale about christ dose not have (S) nothing on me"

" I well bet my lucky start"

“IKYG”

G-day!

Update; 12/19/14 09/53 hours




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Saturday, November 13, 2010

Tri-F in progress

AHOY,

update; 10/06/12 this is very minor changes. I'm really just reading it over etc. if your interested in the updated areas look for the green highlight to wards the end of planning section i.e. step number six.
I scanned and erased all out dated green highlight in the planning section.


update; 7/07/11 Just a couple more images these are worth taking a look at. They are WWII winter techniques. They are posted in Preparation and conduct of Patrols Rule # 4/5. I'm not trying to present a final i.e. optimal organized version of Tri-F anymore. The sad truth is I just don't believe I have the time. So I'll just start posting this info soon, including what I have in the Appendixes and just lit everyone organize it for themselves.

 update; 7/06/11 22:21 hours yeah take that, lol, the only thing I have done here is realize and test the fact that I can now insert my images. I inserted the image of the cantilever in Defense Rule # 6 chose and prepare fighting holes.



2/07/11 I am transferring text from my file now that has correct text clues i.e. italics, bold, underline, there is not much new info added yet. I well be doing so shortly, first I"m going to try and transfer more text from file with all text clues. To have a true copy of what my file looks like, it seems I most transfer small sections at a time to get all text clues to transfer, I am trying to share my info here I wish others would do the same with a comment! The latest updates are to the Conduct of Engagements section this section has been pretty much  totally re-transferred now.


1/29/11 I have decided that going through both my copy and the Blog copy is to time consuming. Therefore i'm going to make all corrections on my copy then simply transfer updated sections. Today I added a little to the COE section with Desert warfare. But as I said its unorganized i.e. not formatted and that is when I realized I need to just transfer changes to whole sections at one time. The reader well not see as much activity but it well be a lot less confusing. So tell the next update my WAG i.e. wild ass guess is two weeks at most. Till then THANK YOU ALL FOR YOUR PATIENTS and good luck to everyone and keep learning these types of life saving rules.



This is my latest and greatest notes published the highlights and other text clues did not transfer, I'll be correcting as I edit live....lol on Google, so all can fallow my train of thought. I know it must ring hollow with all the corrections and confusion with other post, I am trying to get back to Tri-F in progress.


FRAGMENTED FIGHTING FACTS


Preface

Note pink highlighted material is that that IMO is questionable factually or needs to be defined also could be a personal note, yellow is location undecided or unedited material, green means a change has been made i.e. an update to blog, red is important.

Sources, many books the series Combat survival, FMs, Defense and national interest i.e. DNI web site, SP. i.e. strategypage web site and a couple of books written by Mr. James F. Dunnigan, How to make war and Digital solider/Future ?. bayonetstrength its all about WWII and I’ve used about a half dozen statements form it with only minimum editing.

This is my collection of combat notes. One might call it my anthology of combat tactics, techniques, methods and skills. The note taking began about thirty-three years ago with the observation of 10 rules listed with in a book covering the French and Indian wars, entitled Roger’s Rangers. This preceded numerous sources including approximately one hundred books and about a dozen field manuals, of which a few were of WWII era. These were found at libraries, half price bookstores and garage sales. Since going on line in 2007, I have found material on web sites such as Bayonet strength, Defense and National Interest, Global security, Strategy page and Wikipedia.

Previously referred to as K.O.O.L.N. (acronym definition, top secret) I have now titled my work Fragmented Fighting Facts or Tri-F; the name derives from the computer grammar function always alerting me to the fragmented nature of my sentences. This is due to the “just the facts, ma’am” manor the material is written i.e. there has been little if any effort to write in whole sentences or provide context. This is not to say there is no order with Tri-F, in fact there is a theme. I have laid out the information as one might expect a commander or members of a unit to recall it thus utilizing it to conduct a mission.

My original thoughts were to start with defense, due to the fact that IMO a unit needs to be secure somewhere before it can go somewhere. However, I reasoned that well educated leaders with a solid plan is the bases of everything and one of the main reasons for setting up in the Defense to begin with i.e. to make plans. Therefore, we start with Planning, fallowed by the section on Defense, then there’s Preparations and conduct of patrols or PCP, and we end with Conduct of Engagements or COE, i.e. engagements being my word for shootouts. Each section of Tri-F consists of basic numbered rules, fallowed by detailed notes that either relate to, explain, or give examples pertaining to the basic rules. As with the general format of Tri-F, I have laid out each section’s basic rules, as one might need to recall them. This is most obvious in the last section COE starting with rule number one, Flash report, i.e. actions to take upon first contact with the enemy. This sections last basic rule deals with handling POWs.

Keep in mind this is a work in progress; I’m constantly discovering new information to add which in turn still at times requires rearranging things. At the same time, interestingly enough to me, I have not needed to rearrange my original order of the basic rules for quite some time. There are however, two instances where the detailed information fallowing a pair of basic rules became so similar I decided to combine the pair into one basic rule. These two occurrences are noted in footnotes. With this post I plan on using green high-lite to mark any changes , so patriots can fallow the progress with out having to read Tri-F in it’s entirety each time to stay current. This well be added info not every little change.

Out of all the information contained within this work, only an estimated 1% was taught to me while I was serving in the U.S.M.C. Moreover, to put a fine point on it, it’s worth noting I served in Charlie Company, First Battalion, Fifth Marines, First Marine Division, i.e. an Infantry unit. Before my discharge (after a two year cruse), I attended Jungle Warfare School in the northern training area of Okinawa (for two weeks), Mountain Warfare School in Korea (for one week) and Combat Town Camp Pendleton for MOUT training (for one day). I did not take part in any amphibious training nor did I ever go to Twenty Nine Palms for Desert Warfare training. We did ride around in AAVs once at Camp Pendleton. All in all I would say the only things I missed out on a beach landing (at Coronado I believe) and a little sun burn, due to the fact that those twenty nine palms, I was told in the early eighties were all located at the front gate of that base. Needless to say, the training did not impress me, and I now know it was not going to get any better as some suggested to me at the time, and still others later claimed that I should have just stayed in longer.

With my position on the lack of training, I do wish to make it perfectly clear that I do support the women and men serving in the U.S. armed forces. I also believe them to be as brave as any people on earth. My concern is in the way they are being sacrificed. I want people to understand my experience and IMO a lot of evidence suggest Uncle Sam intends to use his infantry in ways that dose not include training any generation in the art of traditional Guerrilla combat tactics i.e. as a Commando would be. I am not talking about SWAT team close quarter tactics, like the Stick dynamic entry. That tactic should be called the “cluster fuck”. Just call that sort of tactic what it is NYPD (Cops T.V. show bad-boys, bad-boys) in Afghanistan. The problem is that that tactic was developed by police departments to deal with an objective occupied by drugged up party animals, i.e. untrained civilians. The police never use it in a spur of the minute situation. They use it when the house has been under constant surveillance for mouths in some cases and the police know all manor of information about everyone in the house and the structure and neighborhood in general. The cops choose a time when everyone is pasted out from partying the night before and have long lost any weapons (between the cushions or under the bed) they might have had on them as show peaces during the party. The primary reason for the large numbers of police in close proximity is to make sure the gang dose not think the raid is a rival gang “brake in” and thus resist in any way. There is lots of yelling too, thus reinforcing the message that no one is trying to be covert like one would be to get away with a crime.

This brings up an intriguing observation of mine; that being that by the book an assault should be made from the top down, yet the troops in Afghanistan and elsewhere use the Stick dynamic entry and usually enter from the front door, like a SWAT team, however resent high profile raids show the SWAT teams attacking from the top down. Examples you may recall are the raids on the Shinning path in Peru in 2000 and the Mumbai raid on the Jewish center in 2008. IMO this proves the existence of what I’ll refer to as a “need to know” training policy by various governments, the purpose being to limit the number of true Commandos that could become tomorrows rebels, apposing corrupt governments. One last thing about the Stick, IMO every single time the unit conducting one of these foolish Stick dynamic entries comes under fire i.e. runs into resistance, the Stick brakes i.e. the whole unit evacuates and awaits some kind of support form tanks, guns, tubes or air. Bottom line IMO the Stick is used as a probing tactic and is meant to be a moral boosting show peace tactic to make the unit feel as if it has taken a hill, which was nothing more than another empty building, that IMO Intel suggested, was the case before the entry was ordered.

It also seems to me that in light of the old saying “you can fight a war with bombs and blockades but only boots on the ground can win it” (that IMO, Uncle Sam has now revised, as fallows) “you can win a war with bombs and blockades, but only the infantry can end the war”, Uncle Sam has gone one more step and decided to use local i.e. indigenous people for the infantry role. It’s all similar to the Mujahideen not being allowed by various governments to return to their homelands after fighting the Soviets. And as for the U.S. and other Western nations, training foreigners to fight a counter insurgency goes. IMO this training includes nothing more than police procedures i.e. conducting investigations, forensics, searching individuals and buildings to collect evidence and yes serving warrants with the all mighty stick tactic. And of course, lots of “new innovative techniques and tactics” involving CAS and IMO (Old) high tech equipment the U.S. Military Industrial Complex wants to clear out of the warehouses.

All in all IMO Uncle Sam has chosen to put just about all his eggs in one advanced technology system, think Star Wars Storm Troopers or Matrix i.e. the Operator or Morpheus trying to guide Neo and others to safety. IMO it looks something like this; (x) unit go to (x) address, kick in front door, use stairs to your right, go south down hallway to (x) door, it is unlocked, interning room go to (x) window looking out window to the north you well see your target running though the neighbors garden. All this information provided by a fleet of satellites as well as Near space assets that are never mentioned by the media as current military assets and of course there’s the robots, UAVs and a flood of other covertly deployed sensors as well as covert eves dropping of any civilian electronic devices in the Area of operations. Thus in light of these and similar so called “new innovative, techniques and tactics” (notice the media and governments choice of words as if were talking Commando tactics i.e. why not use some new high tech terms the system is so eager to introduce us all to normally as a matter of routine), IMO Uncle Sam has placed the traditional Guerrilla combat tactics, on the back burner and is hoping they all go the way of other black arts. This is not just true of the infantry; let us take a peak at aerial combat. Dose anyone out there actually think today’s U.S. pilots are turning and burning, pulling high (G) maneuvers trying to hit the entry windows and get inside the bandits turn. Think any pilot has conducted a yo-yo or split S maneuver lately or made the choice between a single or two-circle fight. Now days its all about stealth, ECM and missiles mostly BVR. IMO this is why the U.S. Navy is not concerned with not having a front line fighter equal to the USAF F-22 Raptor. An article I recently read on Strategy page mentioned a lot of talk about an F/A-18E at an air show displaying a little F-22 silhouette decal i.e. a simulated Kill credit symbol/icon. IMO the F/A- 18E did not gun down that kill.

However if the electronics ever fail (maybe a shift in the axis of earths electromagnetic field, passed a certain point or perhaps a record size solar flare) IMO it well be the masters of the age-old Guerrilla combat tactics i.e. Tri-F basic rules that survive, keeping in mind “no one wins”.

I also wish, that those who join the various services where told all this up front i.e. “we do not intend to train you as a traditional Commando”.

Another thing I would like everyone to consider is that; what makes a Marine special is not the training she or he receives, no it’s the steel the youth demonstrates when they choose to join the Marines. Even when compared to the Special Forces, who are only specialists in their particular field, once again mostly high tech specialties and whose ranks are filled with older personnel that have already been serving and have graduated from a boot camp. Who are then usually chosen i.e. coached into changing their MOS. I am aware of the change in recruitment policy after 2001 allowing for direct entry into the S.F. community. IMO a rarity and IMO it is still not the same as just choosing to go to a Marine Corps Recruit Depot from the start.

Further more, to those who just well not accept the truth about the lack of training along the lines of traditional Guerrilla combat tactics. I can now say that I have exchanged comments with a number of Iraqi and Afghanistan combat vets. These comments can be found on the internet if you Google up my call sign, Newjarheaddean also spelled with one (D). IMO it is obvious that the tactics I speak of are news to the vets, some have made commits that proves in combat they were just winging it. And no, I don’t believe that all the vets are observing some kind of code of silence on these tactics including the vets who are against the wars. Unless everyone wants to say that YouTube and other internet companies are conspiring to edit all combat footage that shows these tactics being used and that, the vets are staging other videos that show them (albeit with great bravery) as armatures without a clue and winging it. If anyone ever sees video, showing the tactics listed in Tri-F being used, be sure and provide a link with your comment. I once saw a flash of film on CNN showing combat in Lebanon during the 1980s that showed some of these tactics being used by a Guerrilla fighter. I well also say I do believe that UAV footage is edited by the Pentagon to keep the public from seeing the few but well trained Taliban and other Guerrilla fighters that are using these tactics. Alternatively, maybe people think our professional highly trained well-equipped military is unable to defeat 10 – 20 thousand religious extremist amateur thugs in almost a decade of fighting. All the while killing at lease by my estimate 100 a mouth including dozens of top commanders.

Let me also say, on the numbers of U.S. physiological casualties, i.e. WIA, (IMO deserving of a Purple Heart). The Government portrays these cases as a result of fighting a war that is “unlike any other war we have fought before” (LOL). Facing an enemy that is fighting in some mysterious and or cowardly manor that simply cannot be countered by military means. I believe the high numbers are a result of US forces fighting in a manor that is suicidal i.e. pointless and counter productive to the real world situation. Example; you have a young brave American ready to fight for the nation, while on patrol someone shoots at the unit from some building, everyone scrambles for cover, as they spray and pray, then after determining the location if they can, the commander calls in some sort of CAS, if someone’s brains have been blow out or the location is vague, a real “crowd pleaser” maybe used i.e. 2000 pounder. IMO this is how 90% of engagements (fought by regular infantry units) are resolved. Special Forces are now and in the feature more and more regular infantry well be using the Matrix. And to those that think this is the exception I say show me the number of WIA or KIA (On either side) by small arms fire i.e. during traditional firefights. Even if one includes sniper fire those figures are really low. I've now researched icasuality.com site and counted 175 in Afghanistan actually shot by small arms in a fire fight. So IMO after witnessing all the carnage and innocent civilian life being lost and receiving all those looks from the witnesses, it is the American that realizes it is his unit that is not fighting right. This is reinforced and really sinks in back in the states when the vet is asked to tell the Commando stories that never occurred and thus the vet must tell the truth i.e. give up the Commando reputation, keep it all inside or start lying. If the first option is chosen that unveiling reality is demoralizing and makes it all not worth it. If either one of the other chooses are made IMO the vet becomes the ticking bomb. And I can tell you all that many times, I have recalled being told once that “when you go home keep your mouth shut about the things we did. If you don’t you well be thought of as a liar or crazy and either which way your life well be over”. That First Sergeant was right, but like my daddy use to say, “He’s right but he dose not know why he’s right” i.e. IMO the First Sgt. thought of what we did in terms of remarkable heroic feats. However, IMO certainly since the beginning of the Vietnam era, it is the lack of training i.e. the manor in which our service women and men are fighting that keeps this tragedy going.

I would also suggest the vets of today are just like I was 25 or so years ago in the sense that they know there training is lacking, however, they just cannot explain what’s missing. Well I now know the tactics they and I should have been trained in and I can now say, “ I'm the PFC that told the U.S. Marine Corps in 1982-1983 that it was out of step, then i went out and proved it by writing Tri-F. What surprises me is that most vets it seems don’t care at all about the tactics I speak of and seem to view me as an unpatriotic “party pooper” lol, when I’m just a U.S. Marine trying to improve the Corps and save lives. Bottom line IMO the infantry needs to consist of unmarried i.e. undistracted, NO CHILDREN, dedicated true professionals, trained in the tactics listed in Tri-F and many more I am sure exist.

And to those that say “chivalry is for the museums” I say “first we must have peace on earth”.


In light of all this, I do encourage every Marine and any Warrior i.e. Commando types to read and study this information discussing and sharing it with others and me, thus making the most of it and forming your own conclusions. Above all, keep training and studying a side from the “new innovative techniques and tactics” taught by Uncle Sam, this can only saves lives. And Remember IMO it’s not just what you know it’s how competent you are and ultimately who is in the right that determines the victor. If nothing else IMO you well understand much more about how Uncle Sam’s enemies are fighting. And if the Matrix crashes (lol) or for any reason you find yourself up close and personal with those Bad-actors you well have a fighting chance.

General information to support my crazy opinions; most info was obtained from web site “how stuff works”.

Feature warrior system;
It’s the "borg" effect. Everything is a sensor, fixed wing, rotor wing, UAV, ground vehicle, robotic platform and individuals. You can send or take data, video or audio from it.

Uniform provides superhuman strength. The fabric is filled with nanomachines that mimic the action of human muscles, flexing open and shut when stimulated by an electrical pulse. These nanomachines will create lift the way muscles do. Limits are the bone strength my SWAG about 300 lbs.
"It makes the soldier become a weapons platform or "F-16 on legs."
The exoskeleton will merge structure, power, control, actuation and biomechanics. Here's some of the challenges:
Structural materials - have to be made of strong, lightweight and flexible materials.
Power source – last at least 24 hours.
Control - must be seamless. Users must be able to function normally move smoothly with system engaged.
Actuation - must be quiet and efficient.

Powering the suit is a 2- to 20-watt micro turbine generator fueled by a liquid hydrocarbon. A plug-in cartridge containing 10 ounces of fuel last up to 6 days. Battery patches embedded in the helmet provide three hours of back-up power.
SP infantry, Bullet Proof Batteries; March 3, 2009: A defense contractor has come up with a clever idea for solving the problem of infantry having to haul around so many batteries. While the ultimate solution is fuel cells, an interim solution is a modified E-SAPI ballistic plate with a 10mm thick lithium ion battery fitted onto it as an additional layer. The bulletproof plate is normally 25x30cm (10x12 inches) and 2.5cm (1inch) thick. Actually, there are four of these flat batteries on each plate. A special vest contains attachments for the various equipment batteries you need to recharge, or a direct connection to some equipment. The E-SAPI plates normally weigh about 5 lbs, adding the panels adds about a lb. Overall; you carry about 10% less weight and more comfortably. The powered plates will be available for sale by the end of the year (from BAE), and two of them are supposed to supply enough juice for a typical 72 hour mission.
The helmet has 360-degree situational awareness and voice amplification. GPS, radio with wide and local area network connections. With onboard computers, soldiers will be aware of their own bodies and the action around them, communication between soldiers, will use sensors that measure vibrations of the cranial cavity, eliminating the need for an external microphone. This bone-conduction technology allows communication with one another, and controls the menus visible through the drop-down eyepiece i.e. a voice activated HUD system. The sound system will allow you to know where that sniper or mortar round came from, detect other soldiers out to a couple of kilometers, i.e. focus and amplify particular sounds while canceling out noises at a certain decibel so preventing damage to ears.

The interface will be similar to Play station 2/xbox due to service personals familiarity to these systems.

SP 1/31/09 under information warfare/the American standard; Right now, all the sensors (vidcams, radars, IR) capture data at different resolutions and speeds. The new TCDL (Tactical Common Data Link) makes this sharing possible by translating all the formats to a standard data stream. Currently, the army can share UAV and helicopter videos with ground troops, and some air force video can be used by soldiers equipped with special equipment.

U.S. Army currently employs Blue Force Tracker (BFT). The system provides commanders and other units real-time picture of AO tracking unit movements etc. U.S.M.C. used BFT, although they initially opted for a more portable and rugged system called the Enhanced Position Location Reporting System, or "ePLRS." Both give real-time tracking. The downside to both systems, however, is they are bulky, old and require computer operators who should be on patrol.

SP October 18, 2008: U.S. Army is building a new version of its "BFT" (for vehicles on the battlefield). During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, (BFT, GPS/satellite telephone devices) were hastily placed in thousands of vehicles. Anyone with a laptop, satellite data receiver, the right software and access codes could then see where everyone was (via a map showing blips for each BFT user). Currently the army and Marines have 55,000 BFTs (and far fewer laptops equipped to display BFT data) and plans to get at least as many of the BFT2 units, and perhaps as many as 120,000. BFT2 is expected to start shipping in two years. There are already eight BFT2 prototypes undergoing testing.

Panzeric posted; ok I think I can give you guys some much needed answers on this matter. I am the digital master trainer on the fbcb2/bft a.k.a. blue force tracker for my battalion and one of the 30 in my brigade that has the master certification. Not bad for an 11b eh. Anyways BFT for the most part is not a laptop system. And it cost a lot more than $1500 stated in the article per system. Each vehicle system cost 40k and even the laptop models cost more than the $1500 stated. As far as my brigade goes each battalion will get two laptop BFT systems and they stay in the battalion TOC. One is unclassified while the second is classified. Everyone else gets the vehicle mounted system. if you're a company commander then you get a route planning kit that will allow you to detach the monitor from the vehicle and set it up in the company CP. ok regarding the whole falling into enemy hands things, its just not possible. if a vehicle equipped with BFT was overrun then it can pretty much self destruct itself by frying its CPU. You can destroy it yourself with literally a couple of clicks on the monitor or another vehicle can tag your vehicle and destroy it themselves. Plus once that system turns on, everyone can see you so if you know what vehicle was overrun one day and shows up on screen two days later you pretty much know where that bad guy is. All of this is unclassified information and should be easy to look up. The army is trying to get the whole system classified though. Regarding the 5 minute delay that’s true and false. For a ground vehicle its position will update every 5 min or after several hundred meters. Helicopters update every 30 sec and I believe 800m. Depending on how you have your filters set up you can send in a sitrep or message within a few seconds. I hope this answers some of your questions.

Integrated Physiological Status Monitoring System, attitude i.e. position, heart rate, core and surface temperature and dehydration.
Bionic uniform will change the logistics of war with augmented physical strength.

Liquid Body Armor - This liquid body armor is made from magneto rheological fluid (MR fluids) a fluid that remains in a liquid state until the application of a magnetic field.
One type of MR fluid consists of small iron particles suspended in silicon oil. The oil prevents the particles from rusting. The fluid transforms from liquid to solid in just milliseconds when a magnetic field or electrical current is applied to it. The current causes the iron particles to lock into a uniform polarity and stack on top of each other, creating a shield. How hard the substance becomes depends on the strength of the magnetic field or electrical current. Once the charge or magnetic field is removed, the particles unlock, and the substance goes back to a fluid state (how quickly?)



QUALIFYING SUMMERY

I do not claim all the information stated in Tri-F is indeed a fact and should be fallowed like a gospel. Hence, the Three golden rules (IMO some of my most important original ideas) listed just prior to the Planning section. With Tri-F, I in fact predict one will find errors, especially with any of the numerical data or formulas; I just don’t have the basic math skills I should have picked up in grade school (when I was studying tactics lol) to double check such information. In addition, as already stated this is a work in progress, much of the information still needs editing i.e. organizing, rearranging of location, word changes or reduction. With Tri-F, only a few acronyms and or phases are listed in the order in which they were discovered. Quotes I would say have all been paraphrased.

I would also like to state that a few times repeat has accrued in Tri-F, reasons for this are that the information preceding the repeat did require context to answer a question or to make a point, especially when I was giving an example. Lastly, IMO some things are just worth repeating. That being said, my personal contribution here is the order i.e. format and condensed nature meaning no filibuster bull shit repeat I have found in every FM, I ever read. In light of these attributes, IMO Tri-F is an extremely valuable tool for every Marine and any Commando or Warrior.

I am aware that some of this information may no longer apply, however I feel commonsense can determine if the rule, suggestion or data would no longer hold up. Many times people have questioned me about the validity of the basic rules; however, I did not make the vast majority of them up. As already stated I copied them from numerous sources many published by the U.S. printing department i.e. Field Manuals. There for let me remind everyone that these rules developed individually over the ages, some indeed going back as far as warfare itself. So to summarize IMO on average over the ages these rules have proven to be the best rules of thumb i.e. most beneficial to those waging war on battlefield earth.

Any additional information suggestions and especially corrections to any information will be greatly appreciated.

Semper Fi
IMO Simplify

NOTE; I felt a quick reference to general studying tips would be helpful to patriots in making the most of your time and efforts in learning Tri-F.


STUDYING

Setting; 1) Study in familiar area on regular basis. 2) Study in similar area as knowledge well be used. 3) All study material should be kept in area of study. This is to eliminate the distraction of having to go and get something.
4) Lighting, over left shoulder for right-handed, visa versa for left-handed, this is to eliminate shadows. Take care to eliminate glare to minimize fatigue. 5) Atmosphere, reduce sounds in background and perhaps put on some soft classical music. Air, note temperature and circulation. 6) Posture, good promotes coordination and endurance. Avoid remaining in same position to long, shift and stretch often or take brief walks. Pour well stress muscles and joints, causing fatigue and repetitive stress injuries. As well as the position thus the functioning of organs especially in abdominal region. Setting correctly, monitor at eye level. Stomach in, wrist strait and level, forearms bent 90 degrees i.e. perpendicular to biceps. Knees level with or above hips. Feet flat on the floor. Slouching counter by keeping shoulders back and down. Imagine a head light in your chest that most always shine forward. Standing correctly there are three natural curves to the spine. The first is in the neck with it being curved slightly forward, referred to as the Cervical curve. Avoid the forward head posture (aka buzzard neck) by keeping your eyes and collarbone in the same vertical plain. The second curve is in the upper back with it being curved slightly backwards, referred to as the Thoracic curve. The third is in the lower back with it being curved slightly forward, referred to as the Lumbar. As a result, the end product, i.e. your spine resembles a re-curve bow. Continuing with tips for standing correctly, your legs should be slightly bent at the knees. Balance your weight equally on both legs and feet. Constantly shift weight around to all four corners of your feet.
Preparations; 1) Clear your mind and relax. 2) Skim though material; check dates, content, forwards, glossaries, index’s, intros and prefixes to make sure information of interest is located within the material at hand. 3) Focus your concision attention; to set your thoughts to the subject at hand, by reviewing notes and asking yourself questions. Types of attention; immediate, i.e. automatic a heighten awareness. Can be activated or developed by scanning area with eyes and ears. Conscious, with your conscious attention it is necessary to feed it information to sustain the focus. Usually immediate picks out words or images of interest then conscious records relevant information. 4) Set goals; in the short term, goals could include deciding on what chapter to read to. With long-term goals, be patient success at multi small tasks can be better than going for one large goal at once.
Conduct; 1) Read critically; get a variety of opinions. Note average person reads 150 words per minute. 2) Retain meaning over exact wording; put notes in your own words. Do not study similar subjects consecutively. 3) Know the duration of subject i.e. length of speeches, classes etc; you tend to retain more information at the beginning and end of speeches, classes, meetings, movies etc. So by knowing the duration you can pay more attention during the mid point. Memory; Diet, some say it can help to eat more fish and nuts, Blue berries are suppose to be excellent. Mind binders, this is braking up the normal routines to enhance recall for specific invents an example might be using your right hand to perform a task if you are left handed. Types of memory; Episodic memory, this is history, personal and over all events such as conversations, schedules and plans. Procedural memory, physical skills i.e. typing, biking or martial arts. Somatic memory, math, combination's or phone numbers. Stages of memory; A) Recording, i.e. acquisition, receiving, input. Note on Distortions two types, passive, counter by avoiding, making predictions or having high expectations prior to classes, events or recording information on various subjects. Note on Dyslexia, it can be countered by closing one eye as you record numbers or other information. B) Retaining, i.e. storage. Note on retaining names; do not judge people negatively, and if person is just unlikable try thinking of them in comical terms. Match the name with rimming descriptive words. Use mediation link i.e. match person to actions, occupation, position, posture, or surroundings. Use name as soon as possible and as often as conversation allows. Note on recognition of faces; pick out feature that stands out the most like eyes, glasses, hat, hair, ears, nose, etc. like a political cartoonist would. C) Retrieving, i.e. recall, output, usage. Note you tend to recall things the way you wish them to be, aka selectivity, example; bed, dream, night, rest, wake. Most people when asked to recall this list include the word, sleep. This is similar to what is referred to as word association. Example; ocean equaling Tide detergent, or broom equaling witch. That is to say, if a person is told a story including the word ocean then is ask to name a deterrent most people well name Tide. Also on Distortions, now active, this includes leading questions or statements i.e. planting idea that something has happened or is a fact when it has not yet been determined. Subliminal; this is manipulating the perception threshold of ones senses.
Principals of memory; 1) Interest, it is being motivated, timing and variety are very important. Do not over do i.e. push your self too far. 2) Relaxation, this involves staying calm, cool, collective, confident, concentrate on things do not worry about them. Avoid situations were your attention is divided. Eliminate all negative thinking, remember when emotions are high intellect is low and this dose work both ways. In fact, thoughts or ideas can reveal themselves as emotions thus resulting in actions in the feature. Sleep or meditation after studying can help retain information. 3) Repetition, in the short term this is repeating facts to yourself repeatedly. In the long term, this is reviewing data from time to time. 4) Organization, this involves keeping data up to date, relating new information to old and of course keeping things in some kind of general order. Note on list making, put things in progressive order according to time and place to compliment each other, i.e. chronologically. Imagery, this can involve using a familiar family room’s four walls and eight corners counting the floor and ceiling junctures. I use a one-foot equals a mile scaled world model and place information at the location it relates to. Develop a personal collection of abstract symbols, letters, words, acronyms, colors, shapes, street signs to use in your mental models. For instance with numbers you can use dominoes. Also with numbers look for patterns i.e. doubles, triples, pairs or sequences of odd and or even digits. In addition, with imagery, when ever you are performing any kind of disassembly or construction task. You can interact with tools and parts, visualizing yourself in miniature. Visualizing yourself helping i.e. standing on parts, handling and positioning tools. With any imagery technique the more detailed, the better even to the point of bizarre i.e. completely out of proportion. Over all when it comes to recalling information, there are two so-called inhibitions of importance to note. Retroactive inhibitions; new information learned recently interferes with old. Proactive inhibitions; proactive because the interference is in the feature, old information effects the recall of new. Both inhibition types can be due to numerous similarities or vast differences in the data. 5) Meaningfulness, in other words how useful information is to you on a daily basis. 6) Familiarity, aka the Big picture i.e. the more you know about subjects the easier facts and data relate or fit into your over all knowledge of a given subject, thus becoming easier to retain. 7) Feed back, this is discussing information with others, comparing notes i.e. sharing or teaching. It is the number one aid to retaining information.

FRAGMENTED FIGHTING FACTS

NO ONE WINS, THIS IS FORGOTTEN. WARS ARE EASY TO START, EXPENSIVE TO CONTINUE AND DIFFICULT TO STOP. WARS OFTEN BEGIN WHEN SOMEONE FEELS VICTORY IS ASSURED. THE FIGHT CONTINUES LARGELY BECAUSE OF NATIONAL AND PERSONAL PRIDE. WARS END WHEN ONE OR BOTH SIDES ARE DEVASTATED, DEMORALIZED AND RARELY SUDDENLY ENLIGHTEN BY THE ABSURDITY OF IT ALL.

James Dunnigan
Then there is this…

THERE IS NO WAY TO PEACE, PEACE IS THE WAY.

The pacifist motto




Three golden rules


1) There well be times for exceptions to the rules; due to circumstances. 2) Avoid setting patterns; from time to time, you should conduct yourself in an unorthodox manor as apposed to an orthodox manor. Make a habit of considering if not choosing alternatives to unfolding situations. 3) Think like the foe; for instance recall and consider your offensive knowledge when in the defense to predict your foes offensive plans.


PLANNING


In this section, I have done my best to eliminate the repeat, filibuster and general bullshit, which is found in all F.M. IMO Uncle Sam likes to change his terms and acronyms at every level of command and annually in most cases. Example BAMCES, FEBA, SMEAC, METT-T, OCCOCA etc. I’m not sure if I got all those right but it dose not matter. The bottom line is, many of the letters represent the same information and you would find all of these and many more involved in various stages of the planning or levels of command. This keeps generations of U.S. service women and men confused and bewildered i.e. busy learning to speak the new language and thus thinking they have learned something useful, which is only necessary because of all the never-ending changes in terms and acronyms describing the same age-old procedures of planning. My point here is that if Uncle Sam would “STOP THAT”, a warrior class could develop i.e. military knowledge would be passed from one generation to the next. Moreover, as previously stated conflicts would come down to who was in the right. However, of course I understand that, that is exactly what the U.S government, dose not want. Anyways any information that is covered in any of the above acronyms you well find it covered (once) in my system.

NOTE; before going any further, you need to understand the fallowing about this (Planning) section. IMO there are three phases and six steps in preparing to conduct a military operation or any organized effort.
The first Phase we well refer to as Planning; in this phase you well use all your mental faculties over coming mental challenges i.e. brain storming. Some things IMO worth considering are as fallows; O’Neal’s law, which is “Murphy was an optimist”. In addition, keep in mind, no plan survives the first few minutes of any battle. The important things are always simple, the simple things are always difficult. History has show long periods of peace, create wide gaps between theory and actual combat. Note there is an increasing use of automation i.e. computers, robots etc in our modern military when it comes to administration and logistics, maintenance as well as planning. IMO with maintenance, why not equip personnel with a HUD type system with graphics, diagrams and schematics to project images onto actual parts and thus illustrate to mechanics or anyone else that might be available, how to perform maintenance task on all this complicated equipment. Thus, there would be less need for traditional training of maintenance and perhaps medical personnel too. An interesting article I found a long the lines of this kind of technique; (Time magazine Nov. 10 2008, page 82, University of Washington, Babak Parviz’s bionic contacts. They use tiny LEDs and are powered by radio waves and solar cells). The next phase is Preparation; this is when you well conduct reduced force then full dress rehearsals. You begin Pre-positioning of equipment, supplies and troops. Start decoy and psychological operations.
The final phase is the Execution phase this is implementing your plan i.e. conducting your mission.

Finally, you need to know that this system should be seen and utilized as a cyclic system. Steps 1-4 are repeated at least three times in the Planning and the Preparation phases then in the Execution phase, step 4 is replaced with step 5 and step 6 which should be viewed as a last but not least task and a continuous (M.O.) modus operandi. The steps are as fallows.

STEP 1) Gathering information;
Information gathered is listed and organized in various I.S.A.L.U.T.E. - R.W.P. reports. Examples are located in Step # 3 Concept of operations part (A). What information is to be gathered? The best way to answer that question is to consider everything listed in Tri-F, i.e. if you need to know something to conduct an operation, odds are your foe will have a counter part and you should be trying to discover it. For example the Commander’s intent, explained in step # 2. Information is to be gathered on current and potential foes to include current allies. Take away the enemy’s recon and you are on the road to victory i.e. denying foe the ability to know your preparations adds to your odds of winning. Recon dose give ones intentions away, however knowledge cannot be gained from ghost, spirits nor projected from heaven, it most be gathered from a trusted man on the ground (a Marine). A sufficient amount of human intelligence can determine what is real or true and what is not. This is far more convincing than data from electronic sensors on satellites, aircraft or other platforms, which may appear much more precise and tangible, but can be misleading and fail to discern between real or diversionary data. Or for that matter, information from spies that might be double or expendable i.e. dead agents.

Five types of spies; Local from the local area, i.e. area of operations. Internal their people, i.e. member of the target organization. Turned aka Double agent i.e. foes spies working for us. These are most important, seek them out make great offers i.e. bribes. Do what you can to make them appear capable and reliable to their own, for instance instruct and feed information to them. Dead spy aka Expendable, used to spread falls information to foe’s agents. Living spy, are simply those that survive. No relationships should be closer than that with spies and no rewards should be greater. Thus, espionage can be expensive. Many females go into intelligence work because they are bared from combat the traditional road to promotion. With intelligence work, there are premiums for attention to nuance, diligence, perception, and good communication skills. These are just the traits females’ tent to have an edge over their male counterparts. In addition, there is no premium on physical strength.

POWs and informants are a copious source of human intelligence. People are difficult to deal with and interpret, that is their intent or motivations. Cross checks on their information is difficult to verify. Nothing parishes faster than information. Lots of information is just contingency plans for possible operations. When playing the great game you are exploiting the nature of the intelligence analyst. All is not what is appears to be. It is quite easy to create an illusion where none is intended. It is often not just a matter of different analyst coming to different conclusions. Each intelligence organization represent/have different interest/requirements. Another problem is differences between cultures, interpreting information or events differently.
Example; U.S. vs. Russia, the two cultures don’t thing alike, it’s a classic (OCEANIC VS. CONTINENTAL) (NAVY VS. ARMY) situation. Most analyst are never able to fully perceive the unique mind set of their opposite. Scattered individuals do posses the abilities. However in most nations especially totalitarian factions, group mentality and party solidarity work against logical/correct interpretations. Highly advanced and open societies publish lots of written information like manuals. However, equipment is better to test and analyze. Russia is at a disadvantage here do to more over seas sales.

From the battlefield with unfolding situations information could be categorized by levels of, Situation first so receiver knows how urgent, Command, Location and Timeline most important factor/criteria, for processing information through the chain of command. Example; i.e. possibilities are; Situation 1) Tactical, covering Command levels, Individual Marine, Fireteam, Squad, Platoon, Company or Battalion. We'll stick with A.O. i.e. area of operations to represent the area your unit is responsible for. IMO the A.O. would be defined by the unit’s ability (based on its Organic weapons or systems maximum ranges, NOT any supportive means it can draw on) to monitor/observe/influence or attack a given area. If you get silly i would say sending letters would be covered by Division. Note also consider as we continue with the situation, command, location and time format information would usually coincide. That is to say duplicates would be coming in. I think the 911 systems been dealing with that one. LOL. One suggestion would be to choice a lead/main and just record others if low on personal for instance. Tactical Timeline covering twenty-four hours or less.
Situation 2) Operational, here the units become the second in command if you well. Close supervision and immediate reserves. So units cover the Storage and analysis i.e. turning info into intelligence for Command levels of Battalion, Regiment or Division. Location level, Theater covering Regions i.e. Middle East, South America or a particular Nation and its surrounding Nations. Timeline covering twenty-four hours and one second ago (LOL) and up to a mouth.
Situation 3) Strategic covering, Storage and analysis etc. for Command levels Division, Corps or service Branch Headquarters. Location level, covering Global information pertaining to locations anywhere on earth that dose not originate in one of the other two location levels. This strategic global level would also cover information about Near Space (12-62 miles of altitude) or actual space assets. Thus the top Headquarters, would divide its database into the three situation and various sub level levels. However the Corp or Division (which ever is your highest) tactical and operational databases would merely be backup copies. (See fallowing information Headquarters task). Strategic Timeline, one mouth or more.

Furthermore your Top level of command would truly be more like an over all Strategy think tank. And investigate any alleged discrepancies, by lower commands especially the individual Marine reports LOL LOL i.e. Cmdr using all leadership guidelines in reverse. 

Headquarters’ task; headquarters monitors and maintains all primary databases at tactical and operational levels thus supervising all units databases and actions. Only the strategic database is a headquarters original and for the Generals eyes-only, if you well. Note a database is not synonymous with ideal storage; it is the constant analytical center. Today’s modern units operating under any so-called Network centric warfare or Sea power 21 concepts would dictate that Headquarters become the webmaster. This would not only involve analyzing large amounts of information in all databases, but distributing it too. Analyzing data includes checking the accuracy and looking for indications of patterns as well as combining related information to maximize its usefulness, at a minimum. It is very important that patterns noted in lower level databases be sent to Headquarters. Other priority information to be sent (aka pushed) to Headquarters would be items like maps, photos, diaries or fliers. Various personnel assigned to monitor lower level databases yet physically located at Division or Corp Headquarters (which ever is your highest) would conduct this analyzing and lower to higher “pushing” i.e. downloading. Note only if modern computer networks where not available would it be necessary for lower level command personnel located with the various commands to conduct this function, by all means necessary i.e. radio, couriers etc. However, with computer networks, ideally lower level units need only to fight battles and feed information to their database, and then receive Intelligence from Headquarters. Note the difference between Information and Intelligence, Information is the raw data, before it has been analyzed i.e. checked for accuracy, patterns and combined with other data to maximize its usefulness and thus converted into Intelligence.

Information possessing; all Commanders must constantly note what is known or unknown i.e. tangible or intangible with people places and events. Incoming information i.e. input, is received at a database, analyzed then used within a unit or sent to other databases. Out going information i.e. output, has been sent (“pushed”) or shared. The distribution of intelligence and the concept of “push” must have a clear definition. Push is not about higher commands sharing all information with everyone, which leads to information overload. Rather “push” is where someone who has relevant information shares it with or (pushes) it to the proper unit so that information can be utilized i.e. converted into intelligence or acted upon.

Term Actionable intelligence (IMO actionabull) i.e. bullshit hope and hype term. Prioritizing information; in this system time becomes the most important categorizing or organizing factor. Hence, IMO all information would first be analyzed to see if it applies to the tactical situation of all tactical commands then operational and lastly strategic and so on.

Prioritizing criteria; possibilities are Time, clock and date the information was received. Context, is it stated in present or past tense, is the information in the form of a question i.e. possible request or is it a statement i.e. possible verification. Location, area information originated from or referred to. Note all this would require titles and keywords I have not put any thought into yet. In addition, one might consider Decision guidance criteria listed under step # 2 Commander’s intent.

Example of prioritizing a message; fireteam requesting a dust off for a Marine who has fallen ill. This information would go into the system by means of data entry, radio transmission or maybe just a visual, observed by Strategic command with real time UAV, near space, satellite imagery or just a pair of binoculars viewing from the physical high ground. Recalling the SOP of using couriers i.e. secure means to keep bad news or casualties’ secret. Keeping in mind IMO anytime a firefight starts medical evacuation transport and equipment would be pre-positioned to perform quick reaction extractions (lol) just like air rescue teams.
Continuing with example, Strategic command would observe this request in the fireteams computer database if data untried categorized as Situation Tactical, Command level Tactical i.e. including I.D. of unit, Location level Tactical including grid co-ordinance, Timeline tactical in twenty-four hour clock and date. Then Strategic command would generate a request to the proper unit and level of command. Most likely and lets just say a Regiment. Thus, the strategic commands request would be categorized as Situation level Operational, Command level Operational including I.D. of unit being hailed, Location level Operational i.e. this is location of unit being hailed. Timeline Tactical i.e. related to Fireteams initial request and until it is more than twenty-four hours old. The Regiments reply would go to the fireteams database NOT to Strategic Commands. Thus it is categorized as Situation, Command, Location Tactical i.e. location of WIA. Timeline already explained. Thus Strategic and tactical unit making original request both get confirmation at same tactical time.

Note handlers are always portrayed as males, but there is the closer. Ha!
Is message from a mobile or stationary operator? Recon or infantry. Logistics, engineer etc.

Categories of “intelligence Items” 1) persons/organizations, 2) Documents/items, 3) After action reports/events, infrastructure/terrain and weather. Note these items were all mentioned separately in the MCA article I combined them.

Any time the unit calls for support from guns or air etc this is a Theater


Radio procedures;
Many people with radios have a tendency to talk and/or repeat too much. Say what you need to say without unnecessary repeats.
Speak slowly, distinctly, clearly, and do not let your voice trail off at the end of words or sentences. Give each and every word equal force.
Keep in mind that you must strive to get your message through the first time.
Lesson to radio for a few seconds to make sure no one else is communicating.
Key mike for at least two seconds to make sure the first part of your message is not cut off, talk across the microphone i.e. hold the face of the microphone at a right angle to your face. Identify whom you are calling by call sign. Then identify yourself by saying “this is” fallowed by your call sign and “over”. Don’t forget to unkey the mike. After contact has been made you may omit “this is”.
Once you have been acknowledged by the unit you are calling give your message.
Speak clearly. Don't speak too fast especially if the message needs to be written down. Pause after logical phrases. Do not use the word "break" when you pause. It is confusing, wastes time and has other connotations. Merely unkey and pause. If the other station has questions, they should key up and make their request known. This also permits other stations to break in if they have emergency traffic.
You end each transmission with “over” or “clear”. When you are completely through you end with “this is (call sign) over and out”. Brake is used if some emergency requires you to stop giving the radio your undivided attention.

When you have understood the message, acknowledge the receipt with the word "roger". The word "copy" is used to ask if someone is ready to copy your message. If you must write notes acknowledge that you received the message with copy or acknowledge fallowed with “stand by”.

In 1957 "roger" was replaced by "romeo," the current designation, but by then "roger" = "received" was so entrenched that the brass knew better than to try and change it.

Always transmit number sequences as a series of individual numbers. Never say numbers in combinations.
If a proper name needs to be transmitted, try to spell it out using the recognized radio phonetic alphabet.
If your message is a question, deduction, educated guess, or hearsay, identifies it as such. Just like with written messages separating facts from opinions with a line.
If you did not understand any part of the message reply with “say again”.
Always know your location or at least note some kind of land mark before going on the air.

When you are on the fringes of communications, (such as in a building or at end communications boundaries edge) look for a receiving "hot spot" site and use it. Don't walk around talking while in a communications fringe area. Repeaters have much more power than your handheld. Even if you have a good signal from a repeater, it does not mean you are good going into the repeater.


SP the data mining was initially used to figure out who the bomb making crews were, and where they operated from. Then, using math techniques first developed during WWII, the intel geeks began creating predictions about where IEDs were most likely to show up next. These predictive models get better as the quality of the information going into them improves i.e. as history record improves terrorists captured and interrogated.
“The real problem in gathering info as we shop (local markets) etc is the language barrier, each of my men has a pack of flash cards with basic phrases in English and Arabic, the Arabic spelled phonetically and also in script. If he can't say it right, he can point." Some troops purchased computerized translation systems like (Phrase-later). The PDA sized unit allows the user to speak into it, and in a few seconds, what was said comes out in Arabic or any other language the Phrase-later is programmed for.
U.S. offered the large Arabic speaking population in the State of Ohio special one tour enlistment packages, with big bonuses. It didn't matter how old they were, there was no PFT, all they wanted was translators who they knew would be loyal to us. "Finally, I've told the locals that anyone who works for us will be eligible for a Green Card. SP 10/10/08 but the danger is great. From 2005-7, when two out of every thousand American soldiers serving in Iraq were killed, some 30 out of every thousand translators died. In June, 2006, ten interpreters were killed in Afghanistan.
SP the oldest biometric is your appearance, which is pretty unique. Next came fingerprints, which were first recognized as a biometric indicator four centuries ago, but did not become a feature of police work until 150 years ago. That was followed by blood types and a whole bunch of stuff you could only do with dead bodies. New forms of evidence are using unique behaviors of people to identify them. The first one of these to get heavy use was typing patterns. First discovered in the 19th century, when telegraph operators found they could recognize each other by the pattern each used when tapping the telegraph key. This was called an operators "chop", and now applies to keyboards, software is used to recognize individuals. The availability of cheaper and higher resolution
digital cameras made possible new biometric identifiers, like gait analysis (we each walk with a distinctive gait). Used as a surveillance tool i.e. allowing UAVs to spot elusive terrorists. Of course you can deceive behavioral biometrics, but it isn't easy, and you're never sure that your change up has fooled the software.

Pattern recognition software, it might be used not only for color, but size, shape, texture, and movement.

“Besides the pictures, iris and fingerprints, what other information is tied to this biometric?” LT. COL. VELLIQUETTE: “well, when you take the person's biometrics, you have them bring in their jensea (ph) card, which is the Iraqi national identification card. Essentially we're assigning fingerprints to this person's identity. So all that information off the jensea card (ph) his name, address, other personal biographical information, his height, weight, hair color all the travel names, father's name, mother's name is all entered into the database. And the database is both in English and Arabic.
Equip every patrol with a camera. If the patrol is fired on, it attempts to get a picture of those doing the
firing. Then, a "contract" is put out on those who can be identified.
Sponsor a local television program where POWs who have killed civilians are interrogated by
the local police. This has been highly effective in Iraq. IMO; But don’t show it on CNN.
Distinguish between POWs on the basis of motivation, tribe, religion or some other basis that
local people will recognize. Then, treat some as “honored guests” and send them home, while continuing to
detain others. This can cause suspicions and divisions among our opponents.
"One time, we planted someone to get kidnapped. A Nighthunter disguised as an NGO worker. We had implanted a tracking device in his body. During his captivity he was able to learn a lot about our enemies. It was easy to rescue him because we knew exactly where he was."
Blue color workers use to gather information. IMO Guerrillas do not kill temporary workers like CNN portrays. Relatives kidnapped to make them cooperate, provide support.
In Ireland against the I.R.A. operatives gathered information with a laundry service, worked two ways, first by chatting to the housewives who provided the mounds of soiled clothes and second by allowing for forensic examination. Also laundry mats, using sensors in ducking to detect traces of explosives or collect other DNA evidence. RFIDs, real Id ACT. Money at ATM serial numbers recorded, then at point of being spent at stores too.


Intelligence preparation of the battle field, I.P.B., Area studies, Net assessments:
Comparing of intelligence on two nations/groups to answer questions concerning mission and most likely victor. Receptiveness; determining if a particular group will respond favorably to a particular psyops task. Actual and possible behavior of group, before during and after ops. Vulnerabilities; possible reprisals for cooperation. Weaknesses of any kind that a competitor could exploit to reduce support or security of an Allie. Daily activities; routines when they sleep, get up, what and when they eat, where and how they get there food and water. Location of items connected with various aspects of life and ceremonies. Pay attention to not only obvious but subtle ways group demonstrates views, gestures, accepted ways of meeting. Who is listened too most often and under what conditions and circumstances, especially emergencies. Note out side help the particular needs, views of friends’, values, judging one another, accepted extremes. Diversity within groups is not uncommon. Separated segments living in isolation can be of radically different compositions biological, sociological customs, conflicting histories, religion, political and materiel needs. Criminals, trust is established on the bases of personal history, experiences, criminal acts/M.O., customs, foods, up bringing, neighborhoods and prisons, ethnicity, shared friends, forms of entertainment, recreation, dress habits, languages. Italian is as much a language of gestures and facial expressions.

Groups should not be judged by your values. But based on groups social values and experiences, history. People posses’ attitudes because they meet current or past needs. Races that live in tropics and in country of jungle/brush are timid as compared to men who live in Mountains, and nomadic wonders of desert or Islanders. Often previously written reports are to general in nature or bias to be of any use. Talk directly to others who have been there. Evaluation of discussions made to discover errors. Conclusions made by you previously will be treated as tentative in nature. When asking questions, any suggestion of correct answers will be avoided. People tend to give answers they think you won’t to here. With these things in mind a revaluation can be made. Company commanders spending lots of time at city council meetings.


Recruitment of Assets, with suicide bombers Head hunters look for those sympathetic to group’s cause, loners who have little future. Uneducated little chance of mirage, people who are not good looking, homosexuals, out case, minimum family ties. Families can be large or small, poor or rich. Especially those who have lost love ones. People living away from home. Passive out look sights air of resignation, quietness lack of interest, communication or appetite. With people in general first work on weak then those less frequently aroused more stable. Use verity of approaches, lines of persuasion. Consequently there’s a better chance of hitting on common ground. Always carry cigarettes and lighter. Ideas of others must be respected stress accord and a sincere approval of ones values. Avoid dogmatisms and minor disagreements, people like to win, keep larger picture in mind. Gain report by showing interest in there tools and skills. Never promise them anything unless you can deliver. Person is isolated and alienated then just as they can't take it anymore, the planned/chance meeting in public. Every thing said at first meeting/appearance has to be provable or true. You could use the confession in second meeting “I was not sure about you, so I lied, you understand” Etc.  

The pitch a slow methodical mine game. High ranking respected member embraces recruit in public. Make them feel important needed, recruit told of his /her talents virtues that pertain to mission/group. Such as loyalty to the group, not individual thoughts. To control others you must firsts ID what they see as reward, then control reward based on performance. To ID reward consider all possibilities, especially those they may not be aware of. Greed, punishment, intimidation, peace, health, acceptance, approval, companionship, fulfillment, love, physical power, praise, morality, righteousness- (appealing to there sense of right and wrong), spiritual, sexuality, income. Watchers do back ground cheeks, looking for leads to other groups. Recruits first used as support so more can be learned about them there family and past. Suspicious activity sleepy, overly observant/nosy, regularly injured. Black men do not stand out as being resent arrival from north or south. When there is a spy suspected within camp, have Marines retire to tents. Spies well have nowhere to go. The buddy system to prevent spy within units, Marines are teamed up. They are always together. Allow Marines to pick first partner, spies may team up. Then commander chooses alternates. Final recruitment step, person is placed on short list.

Sleepers AKA pathfinders if they act as support for other units. Sleepers cannot be left alone indefinitely. However long term relationships with Handlers, to reaffirm reliability are difficult to maintain with out arousing rival suspicions. Study findings by Shin bet the Israeli version of the FBI; male suicide bombers tend to be introverts, the women less so. The women are older and better educated than their male counterparts. Out of 67 women recruited for suicide attacks from 2002 to 2005, 33% were college graduates and an additional 39% had finished high school. Males are usually in their late teens to early twenties with little education. Israeli intelligence believes women receive far less training and preparation for their suicide missions than do men. Why do they do it? Some are motivated by the promise of paradise. Other motives are revenge, and to restore family honor. Many women point to private tragedy or shame. Recruiters, who approach them on campus or through internet chat rooms, well make romantic advances that the women fall for. Some see it as preferable to an arranged marriage. Some because fathers refused to let them marry boyfriends. Sumya first martyr (female or city?)

In some cases, organizations have paid rewards of $11,000 to the Pakistani and Afghan families of suicide bombers, many of whom are cancer patients or heroin addicts, according to U.S. military communications intercepts.

Motives; coercion two choices, punishment or denial. Altruistic - Have a sense of duty for majority. Appeal for public approval. Often a public act. EX; Jihadist. Egoistic – Mostly by individuals. 15/20% leave notes usually for family, 80% male, 60% suffer from depression, have been recently hospitalized, 30% severe physical terminal illness, 25% alcoholics or drug users. Confronts issues alone, usually a private act. Psychological trauma leads to isolation from society. Seen as typical crazies, ordinary case public disapproves. Fatalistic – Doomsday beliefs often have been brainwashed. Members of a strictly controlled group or organization. Suicide pacts, timing often coincides with and imminent threat of intrusion by outsiders. Public misunderstands. Ex; cults, mostly if not all are Christians.

Characterized by bizarre and eccentric practices. Marked as members, tattoos or even castration. Vows of silence. Polygamy, public confessions, communal punishment. The structure of Heaven's Gate resembled that of a Medieval Monastic order. Group members gave up their material possessions and lived a highly ascetic life devoid of any indulgences. Everything was shared communally. Six of the male members of the cult voluntarily underwent castration as an extreme means of maintaining the ascetic lifestyle. Heavens gate. Leader Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles. Located in a house on a ranch in Santa Fe near San Diego. Suicide act on March 26 1997. Deaths #39. Other examples, Jim Jones people’s temple. In Jonestown Guyana. Leader Jim Jones. Group drank cyanide laced Kool-Aid. On Nov. 18 1978 Deaths # 900. Branch Davidians. At Waco Texas. Leader David Koresh. Burned to death, on April 19 1993, Deaths # 76. The order of the solar temple. At locations in Switzerland and Quebec. In Oct. 1994, Dec. 1995, and March? 1997. Death total #74. Movement for the restoration for the ten commandments of god, A Ugandan doomsday cult. Sang hymns, doused themselves with gas, and set themselves on fire. On March 18, 2000. Deaths # 230.

Statement by Michael Asher an SAS member, living with a nomadic tribe in the Sahara. This tribe valued nothing so much as courage and endurance they were a stern rugged people who had survived for centuries where survival was only just possible. These nomads lived by a code as strict as anything I had known in the SAS. A man must defend his traveling companions until death. He must offer hospitality to complete strangers and guard them with his life while they dwelt in his tent. He must share every last drop of water and every last piece of food. He must take upon himself the sacred duty of revenge especially for an affront to the honor of his tribe. These people had no outlets for their violence as we had had in the army. I realized there were no fist-fights to determine pecking order, no milling. Fist fights are after all a kind of game played to a set of conventions. These nomads did not know how to make a fist; they carried daggers and were not slow to use them. Every fight was a fight to the death. To them, war was a limited affair, a skirmish in which one or two people were killed and honor was satisfied, in a fight to defend your life, wife, land or livestock. These were things a man could fight for. I thought there was no shame in being a warrior, it had been and honorable profession since the dawn of time. However our society had become so huge and complex that you were fighting not for things that really mattered but for abstract concepts or merely a police action. It was then that I learned my final lesson, fight, but do not fight another man’s war. These nomads had few of the illusions of so called civilization. They did not as Carl Gustav Jung said, “believe in the welfare state, in universal peace, in the equality of man, in his eternal human rights, in justice, truth or the kingdom of god on earth”. There struggle for existence over the millennia had taught them the sad truth. Mans life, is a complex of inexorable (relentless) opposites day and night, birth and death, happiness and misery, good and evil. They are not sure, even that one will prevail against the other, or that good will avenge evil or joy defeat pain. Life is a battle ground. It always has been and it always well be. If it were not so, existence would come to and end. The ability of people to dehumanize anyone outside their own tribe is the sole cause of war. It is also paradoxically the reason for human survival. The world exists in harmony, but everywhere nature is in conflict tooth and claw. Conflict is what gives nature its structure. Adversity like love, makes you a person, it defines you and gives you an identity. Identity not food or land is what the fighting is really about. The enemy is what makes you yourself. Without the enemy you are nothing.  

Churchill on the FATA tribesmen; They, when they fight among themselves, bear little malice, and the combatants not infrequently make friends over the corpses of their comrades or suspend operations for a festival or a horse race. At the end of the contest cordial relations are at once re-established. And yet so full of contradictions is their character, that all this is without prejudice to what has been written of their family vendettas and private blood feuds. Their system of ethics, which regards treachery and violence as virtues rather than vices, has produced a code of honor so strange and inconsistent, that it is incomprehensible to a logical mind. I have been told that if a white man could grasp it fully, and were to understand their mental impulses -- if he knew, when it was their honor to stand by him, and when it was their honor to betray him; when they were bound to protect and when to kill him--he might, by judging his times and opportunities, pass safely from one end of the mountains to the other. But a civilized European is as little able to accomplish this, as to appreciate the feelings of those strange creatures, which, when a drop of water is examined under a microscope, are revealed amiably gobbling each other up, and being themselves complacently devoured.

Reported by weekly standard 1/30/09 concerning victims of US UAV missile strikes in FATA. U.S. Army issued payments to the families of those killed, including the Taliban commander. The Associated Press reports: On the back of an Afghan army truck, U.S. officials paid $40,000 in Afghan currency to representatives of the 15 people killed — $2,500 for each death plus $500 for two wounded men and $1,500 for village repairs. Lt. Col. Steven Weir, a military lawyer who helped oversee the payments, said the payments were not an admission by the U.S. that innocents were killed. "It's a condolence payment," he said. "The villagers said none of them were in the Taliban, just peaceful individuals from the village. So by this payment they will understand it's not our goal to kill innocent people. This may help them understand we're here to build a safer and more secure Afghanistan." When asked if the U.S. was paying money to relatives of people that the U.S. had wanted to kill or capture, Weir said: "If we did accidentally shoot someone, we want to make that right, and if we have to pay money to someone who didn't deserve it ... it's kind of like it's better to let nine guilty people go free than to jail one innocent person."
But didn't the Taliban commander "deserve it"? It's just this kind of fuzzy logic that gets U.S. troops killed. The money given to the Taliban commander's family will be funneled back into the Taliban coffers--in fact, the odds are good the Taliban will move back into the town and collect all of the money disbursed.

The shadow governors appointed by the Taliban in every province were reshuffled to break up emerging bureaucratic fiefdoms and re-energise the movement.
Afghans with their better eyesight will be able to make eye contact with one another from much farther distances than the average westerner would realize.

Size of Counterinsurgency Units Do not form large units it diminishes one of the principle strengths of an insurgency; namely, dispersal into small and more mobile targets.
Know the enemy’s tactics and routines; strict adherence to doctrine or even repetition of innovative tactics is a common characteristic of conventional forces. Insurgent forces can exploit this weakness. Such knowledge can provide advance warning of COIN forces intentions.

Open resistance flared so quickly that only two months after the Soviet invasion, (on the night of 23 February 1980) almost the entire population of Kabul climbed on their rooftops and chanted with one voice "God is Great".



Types of campaigns; Demonstrative: Tactics, hunger strikes, boycotts, hostage taking, warnings announced in advance of attacks, avoids undermining sympathy. Lots of property damage. Many people watching, not dieing. It is as much political theater as violent. Goals include gaining publicity for recruitment, attention to grievances, gain support from sympathizers on the other side, 3rd parties. Examples of groups using this method. Orange volunteers of N. Ireland, National liberation army of (Colombia) Red brigades of (Italy). Destructive: AKA Robin Hood. Tactics, Selective killings, balance between fear and sympathy. Ex; killing only the rich or certain group. May under take Suicidal missions for vital reason. Suicide missions vs. suicide attack. Suicide mission, attempted even though the odds are greatly against success. Plan also includes some attempt to survive and or escape. Suicide Campaigns: aka the art of martyrdom. Tactics, all out, no concern for saving sympathy. Pros: suggest no threat can deter. Suicide attacker deliberately orchestrates the circumstances around death to further increase expectations of future attacks. Can also make last minute adjustments. No escape plan or rescue necessary. Secondary task Ex; information gathering immediately before attack. SP Most of them have come from the Meshud tribe in Waziristan. Here, a small group of Meshud tribesmen have been recruiting suicide bombers. The Meshudi terrorists claim they can take a volunteer and train and equip them for a suicide bomb attack in six hours. This follows the pattern in Iraq, were a few terrorist cells produced most of the suicide bombers.

During 2000–2004, there were 472 suicide attacks in 22 countries, killing more than 7,000 and wounding tens of thousands. 80 % of suicide attacks since (1968? 1998?) occurred after the September 11 attacks, with jihadis representing 31 of the 35 responsible groups. More suicide attacks occurred in 2004 than in any previous year, and 2005 has proven even more deadly, with attacks in Iraq alone averaging more than one per day. Suicide attacks annualized by decade; 1981-1991 5 attacks, 1991-2000 15 attacks, 2001-2005 180 attacks. Suicide attacks world wide 2001- 2005; 2001 (81), 2002 (91), 2003 (99), 2004 (163) 2005 (460). Also 301 of the 315 attacks prior to 9/11 shown to be part of campaigns for large organizations. Most important is community support for martyrs. Democracies are more vulnerable. Definition of a Democracy, leader and legislature must be elected, there most be more than one party. With at lease one peaceful transfer of power. Ex: US, France, India, Israel, CIS, Sri Lanka, Turkey. They are seen as weak compared to a dictatorship. The Kurdish PKK fighting with Turkey and Iraq is a good example of only Democracies being targeted. The PKK used suicide attacks with Turkey but not Iraq when it was under Saddam. Nine conflicts where suicide attacks were used. When U.S., France and Israel in Lebanon, Israel in west bank and Gaza too. Tamil Tigers fighting in Sir Lanka. Kurds fighting Turkey, CIS in Chechnya, India in Kashmir and Punjab. Nations US maintains combat troops in, and assures there safety. S.A., Qatar, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Turkey, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Jordan and Yemen. It is not clear if U.S. would defend Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan no combat troops.

Psychological Operations:

With psychological operations the exact out come is always unpredictable. You can manipulate ones mind like a puppet on a day to day bases. However in the end the ultimate reaction is unpredictable. “Ultimately it dose not mater in the lease what one thinks, only what line of action taken that effects the situation”. Therefore, I psyops should only be used in a defensive mode. These notes are merely to make one aware of the tactics used by others. A good rule of thumb is: once is happen chance, twice coincidence, three times is enemy activity. It is the nature of war that what is beneficial to you is detrimental to the enemy and what is of service to them hurts you. There for never do or omit doing anything as a consequence to others actions, consult your own interest only. You depart from this interest when ever you imitate such measures as he pursues for his benefit.

Basically psyops are concerned with persuading individuals or a group to act favorable to ones interest. Aikido a Japanese martial art that emphasizes centering and blending. You will learn control fallows awareness of self or others. First understand than be under stood, knowing what is in the back of your enemies mind is not always possible, but leaving them no doubt what’s in the back of your mind is. Be aware of your own preconceptions so that they are not exploited. Deception is created by manipulating perceptions. First I.D. bias or crate one. It’s easier to reinforce a perception than to change one. If you know what’s expected or bitter yet hoped for, your deception will be on firm ground. Best to concentrate on ones capabilities not goals. Note: I interpret this last statement as communicating to opponent that it is futile to resist. And then there’s what Nixon said about goals – “one who reveals his intentions can never accomplish his goals”.

Propaganda; any form of communication designed to influence attitudes, behaviors, emotions or opinions. Message is the meaning sender seeks to pass on. Means of communication, consider all forms of printed martial, fliers, business cards, posters, billboards. Target must be literate. Motion pictures, with natives’ photo may not translate well. Modern communications, Radio and TV. have no effect if infrastructure and equipment does not exist.

Joke; best weapon the CIA had against the KGB was the VCR.

Use rallies, entertainment centers, stage productions, puppets, drawings in the ground, scaled models. Gifts know present and historical meaning of items. Symbols selection based on target analysis in terms of targets view of reality rather than what propagandist views as reality. The target audience interprets message based on previous experiences and learned responses. Therefore it is necessary to understand these experiences. Literal reception is no guarantee of its effect at terminus i.e. it must compete for attention with other events. Each message created with a distinctive purpose in mind. Dialogue terms always towards objective. Repeats themes play to emotions. Language not only dictionary meaning but maze of emotions which it arouses. Message must be believable have some real bases. White propaganda information disseminated in a way that I.D.s the source. Card stacking storing of true facts in your favor. Gray propaganda public information disseminated in way that dose not specifically I.D. source. Inserting distorted facts in presumably unbiased foreign or 3rd party publications. Bandwagon fallow and use audiences’ line of reason. Being reasonable, Plain folks; I like you! Were alike! Know it all advisors have little influence with foreign advisors who frequently are senior and in practical terms have more experience. It takes great tack and persuasive skill for example to change the minds of entrenched auto crafts at any echelon when it comes to political, social, economical or military reforms, that might weaken personal positions or careers. Glittering generalities, big words, esoteric language, lots of Acronyms. No examining arguments. Complexity taking others word for facts, self confidence trusting yourself out of pure adrenalin. “My mine is made up don’t confuse me with the facts”. Name calling apply labels to the target tailored to fit audience example- devil/demon if addressing religious group. Mirror image projecting image of what enemy is saying about you on them. Note, can you ever say anything about someone with out saying more about yourself? Bigger the leak, less information believed. Elusion that person has discovered information by his own hard work or by accident. Black propaganda Facilitates plausible denial. It is disinformation deliberately designed to deceive audience and that conceals I.D. of sources, sponsors and participant’s or I.D.s false ones. Transfer association Target is convinced another respected group, organization or individual agrees with action, idea. Also others within group. Bogus accounts frequently gain credibility through repetitive reception. Making announcement that arrest made with help form informant when it was not. Use whispering campaign indirect approach. Person to person grape vine. Also CIS cheaper to bribe judge than university deans. Forbidden means expensive. Most corrupt systems in order, police 40 %, Judicial 15%, ministry and polities’ civil serves 20%, Banking 7%.
Note also see COE rule # 17.

Note the first six personality characteristic types are listed in order that IMO they might evolve in anyone who is not aware of their own paradigm.

First possible series;
Characteristics of co-dependency; typically from homes where emotional needs where not met. Terrified of abandonment and will do anything to keep relationship. Nothing to expensive time consuming or to much trouble for our partner. Become caretakers confuse pity with love tend to love those they can pity or rescue try to change emotionally unfavorable people into warm caring ones. Live from point of view of a victim and are attracted by that weakness in others. Also are approval seekers, get guilty feelings when you stand up for yourself. Take far more than 50% of the blame when something goes wrong. Judge your self harshly have low self esteem. Believe you must earn the right to enjoy life. (Drama Queen) become addicted to excitement and emotional pain. Excitement of unstable relationship may counter a tendency towards depression. This also shifts attention from you. More aware of the dream of how relationship might be than reality. Lost ability to show emotions and feelings reactors rather than actors. Solution; love yourself accept process of change i.e. growth. Don’t try to change others. Be aware of your attitudes and feelings about each aspect of your life. Learn to be open and trust appropriate people. With relationships ask yourself dose this person enable me to grow. Let go of destructive ones without feeling bad. Rely on friends and strengths value your serenity. Be proactive/actor not reactor.
Rescuers; give help when not asked. Neglect to find out if offer is welcomed, gives longer help than ask for or needed. Omit ignore feedback. Don’t check results. Feel good when accepted and very dad when turned down. Do most of talking or work often exceeds goals. Hard for you to take time for yourself. Supplies words for others when they hesitate, interrupts a lot. Makes excuses for other people. Feel others are not grateful enough or can’t get along with out you. Assume you have others consent. Solution; become helper lesson for request then present offer, give only what is needed. Check results periodically to see if functioning i.e. solving problems meeting goals using suggestions successfully.
Placater; words agrees placates example; whatever just here to help you and others, always pleasant actions and words. Apologizes for every thing. You owe everyone something. You take responsibility for everything mostly negative events. Agrees with any criticism with out reasoning. Would not think of asking for something for yourself. Feel you well get things if you deserve them. Problem; I don’t exist. Solution; focus on pleasing yourself. Don’t except criticism readily, don’t feel responsible for everything.
Second possible series;
Computer; problem feeling of being vulnerable and weak wants to think away things. Words ultra reasonable example; if you would only look carefully. Always calm cool collective. Does not show feelings. We hide our feelings judge those that don’t. A dictionary words dry (abstract) always try to use largest words even when not sure of exact meanings. Goes into lots of details. Must be in charge and control relationships. Body moves very little. Deceptive masking; stiff upper lip, no showing weakness, you close off help. Solution; be okay with showing emotions, let people get close to you, let others share thoughts and ideas on matters. Be a Team player.
Blamers; words disagrees blames, you never do anything right, what is wrong with you. I am boss around here. If it weren’t for you everything would be okay. Problem lonely unsuccessful, you are a fault finder, dictator, acts superior, starts statements with never or why don’t. Does not entertain answers. More interested in throwing weight around than finding out the real truth. Feel others must obey if you are to feel good. Solution; putting others down only pumps you up for a minute. Use sincere praise and complements, respect and curtsey. There is a difference between Blame and being accountable as in responsible; to deserve blame you must of intended actions, equal consequences. Accountable i.e. responsibility simply means you are in control, accountable or responsible doesn’t imply intent or recklessness. It says only that you did or allowed to be done. What led to the out come. Example; ruff housing you break chair this equals recklessness, responsible for damage, can be blamed. Set on and break a chair equals responsible for damage but you can’t be blamed. However you are still responsible. This example according to author dose not apply to children, or rape victims.
Distracters; words irrelevant purpose is to distract your off somewhere else your actions and words are not related and or to others actions and words. Don’t respond to the point. No focus don’t know where you’re going or have been nor when you get there. Feels lonely there’s no place for you, breakneck speed very important. Solution; slow down focus on objective. Face real feelings, build self-esteem. Consider the dangers of denial, you fail to see what is, or as you are resisting you fail to test hypotheses. Subsequently things that are otherwise sound and logical can lead to wrong conclusions. Can lead to paralysis.

More types of personalities;
Masochist; often abused as kids.
Narcissism; i.e. excessive love or admiration of oneself. Usually associated with infantile behavior and regarded as abnormally regressive in adults, it is the literal complement of egoism.
The poser similar to placater, act superficial and act like stupidity were a virtue. Use phony self criticisms to elicit compliments, devoid of intimacy people eater goal to control everyone and thing. Manage your life. Well tell you what you think and feel. Are users, appetite for audience. Ultimately frustrated and loneliness.
The porcupine similar to Blamers, seem to have chip on shoulder, they expect to be offended. Determined to find faults. Quick to personalize statements.
Drama queen similar to distracters, nothing ordinary sicknesses are worst the doctor has seen. Repeat themes, every commit is the sweetest or rudest they ever hard. They can’t be taken seriously. Lots of smiles and nods.
Term histrionics; Intelligent but impractical, bore people, are colorless absence of bonding. Gossiper always looking over there shoulder. Whispering. Anxious urgent, go from one imagined crisis to another.
Guilt monster tactic, use guilt as a weapon. Used to get what they want. To keep others down.


To control one most protect or enhance their self-esteem. What’s in it for me! Prefer to talk about their self. What’s important to them. Wait to talk don’t lesson.
People hear and incorporate only what they understand.
You might comment on how hard they work. What a difficult job it was. Not always right but never in doubt.
I’ve made up my mind don’t confuse me with the facts.

Why people do and don’t do things. People do what works, you do things because at some level it works, at some level the unwonted behavior serves a purpose.
Choices have results that accumulate two define your experiences. When you choose behavior you chose consequences. When choosing thoughts physiological reactions occur in unison i.e. determines your energy type and level i.e. negative producing more negative. The internal monologue is the most active and consistent dialogue we have. Most important daily choices is your attitude, personality, style.
You can start behaving in positive ways to have what you wont and or stop behaving in ways that interfere. Example; over eating.
North star positive monologue. You can’t change what you don’t acknowledge. If you lie to yourself problems can’t be identified, two common ways of repression misrepresent or omission of what we don’t want to face, feel we can’t handle.
Selective amnesia anti trauma. Can protect conscious valves and beliefs however, this can leave a hole in reality. Try to ID and see blind spot. Beliefs must be questioned. You did what you knew how to do and when you knew better you did better. Change is scary must adjust to delayed verses immediate pay off. Great payoff verses little. Example jogging or lie in bed. Recognize the competing agendas.


Greetings with strangers is superficial. Polite exchanges.
People from large families may have learned to get along with other people more.
Never miss a good chance to shut up.
Reciprocity get what you give. Treat others as you whish to be treated.
Concentrate on motivating and helping others. Find the best in everybody, some times it takes years for individuals to show you there good points.

What do they value; ethics, money, beliefs about life, positions, philosophies. Need to hear to think your okay. Wants. Out look relevant.
People mostly fear- rejection.
Mostly need acceptance.

Existing, preservation, no regard for quality.
Are you a Teger/motivated or a Eeyore/down and out.
Pray to god but row for the shore.

Define calligraphy.
Define milquetoasts timid man or boy considered childish or unassertive.
Writing name on leg for ID less likely to get smudged.
Life laws/rules of game.

Curriculum based on the holistic model, defined as the optimal performance of all human aspects i.e. mind, body, and spirit.

STEP # 2 Commander’s intent: 

Statement about the situation using general information given as a I.S.A.L.U.T.E, R. W. P. report (i.e. format for briefing). Most importantly the commander defines objectives and how far to go to achieve them. Also time limits if any. Leaders should know commander’s intent two levels above his own, to better evaluate his own decisions. Commander’s Objectives are divided into Short term and Long term. Ex. mission may be a precise, detailed order of the day or a continuing command responsibility. Leaders should keep a log. George C. Marshall - any order that can be misunderstood will be. They must be clearly and candidly presented with neither equivocation nor ambiguity. Comprehensive, yet not involved. It must appear clear when read in poor light, in the mud and rain.
Source MCG June 2009, campaign’s goal must be measurable, easy to understand, and achievable within the nation’s or the coalition’s resource constraints. Once the campaign goal is defined, military must devote considerable intellectual rigor defining and understanding the problem, the enemy, his COGs, and their corresponding vulnerabilities. Only then can they develop a campaign plan that achieves the assigned campaign goals.

Decision guidance A) Type of order. Routine matters coming under previously approved policy are generally covered by SOPs and are handled by the staff without repeated visits to the commander. The fallowing will be brought without delay to the attention of the commander. Disapprovals form higher authority. Errors, deficiencies or irregularities alleged by higher authority. Appeals from subordinate commanders about decisions made at Hqt. Serious accidents involving personnel of unit. B) Time available. Short time between completing preparations and implementation. Have a definite time for completion of objective. Scheduling; provides for coordination and ensures completion in a timely manor. Especially important when commands or units must work together. Keeps appropriate pressure on subordinates. Allow sufficient time for the capable. Avoid becoming a leader who demands regularly that tasks be completed “yesterday”. Make one individual responsible, request assignee to estimate completion date, or set one. C) Restated mission. Involves reviewing commander’s intent. Never bring a problem to the commander without at lease a tentative recommendation. Make sure that you know what you’re talking about when you apprise the commander (or Xo) of a problem. Ideally you should present solutions in such form that only approval or disapproval of the plan is required. Note ask yourself would you stake your reputation on plan. Should a failure to agree develop, the divergent (different) view must be presented objectively. The staff officer is not settling a debate but is presenting facts and views and making a recommendation. The commander will make the final decision. D) Current scheme of maneuvers. Reviewing circumstances. It is necessary to know sentiments of your foe, are they confident or apprehensive. Point out foe’s weakness your advantages, and give argument for foe’s case to incite rage. Analyze foe weather strength is in experience or equipment. Stronger in infantry or cavalry. F. M. Erwin Ugen Rommel – “bold decisions give the best promise of success, but one must differentiate between strategical and tactical as well as boldness or a gamble”. A bold decision is one that in the event of failure leaves one with sufficient force to deal with out come. A gamble is a decision that can lead to complete destruction of ones forces. “Situations do arise where a gamble maybe justified, as for instance when in the general course of events defeat is merely a mater of time”. Col. Boyd’s (OODA) loop. The principle of (OODA) is to ultimately ware foe down. Destroy paradigm, (foe’s view of the world), by sending ambiguous or deliberately misleading signals, and also moving and thinking faster than foe can respond. No one, no mater how weak, can be completely ruined by a foe, unless ones fall be facilitated by one’s own actions. Most desirable is to attack the mind, another words plans and intentions. Next his allies witch makes foe’s own world stable, provides the emotional and moral bunds to sustain his effort. Worst his armies. And worst yet, his armies in cities. The (OODA) Loop; O) Observation- perception, heighten awareness. I.S.R. O), Orientation-  i.e. (S.A.) to new circumstances, unfolding situation. Includes analyzing or synthesizing. Entropy after initial shock of war or battles, actions settle down to steady grind. Casualties and movement rates become predictable. Events tend to regress towards the means. Don’t let flashy press reports fool you; exceptions tend to get published, not day to day averages. Attitudes differ on the battlefield. It can be difficult to tell whose winning. Especially today when battles are lost, units are quickly repositioned. Troops decide who won or lost. It’s possible for non combat troops to maintain reasonable belief in continuing victory with out knowledge of the big picture. A local defeat can be explained as an exception. Opinions also very with M.O.S. rank and location. NOTE: with advanced technologies and systems like Network centric warfare this naivety would be less likely in the feature. D) Deciding on counters, could be hypothesis - OA operational adaptation; Anticipation of enemies adaptations not only minimizes there effectiveness it increases our ability to achieve intent forewarning i.e. predict their objectives. Maintenance of main objective as situation develops there is a temptation to change objective. This waist time and energy. Consistent pursuit of original objective is preferred. Considering dimensional effects of all decisions. As in how well my decision effect all dimensions in my A.O. and higher up. The grid system suggested by Mr. Lind across the top he listed, Physical, mental, and moral. Mr. Lind’s system listed tactical, operational, and strategically down the side. A) Acting- could include testing of hypothesis. Fuller “A battle some times decides everything and some times the most trifle thing decides a battle”. “In war so much is unknown that it frequently happens that the simple to the complex is the rule of war”. “There for the simpler and more direct the beginning the less likely it is that things well get out of hand”. NOTE; Boyd came to the conclusion that all stages of the OODA Loop were not created equal. ‘Orientation is the Schwerpunkt’, he wrote in 1987—the decisive point of the OODA Loop and of human decision-making. Orientation ‘shapes … the way we observe, the way we decide, the way we act. In this sense, Orientation shapes the character of present [OODA] loops—while these present loops shape the character of future orientation. As the warfighter orients himself (and this is the crucial point) he brings to the process not only the imperatives of his immediate situation—whether piloting an F-86 over the Yalu River, leading an armored column through the Ardennes Forest, or planning the invasion of Iraq—but all his past experiences and the values of his society in which he was raised. Indeed, Orientation is nothing less than ‘the interplay of genetic heritage, cultural tradition, previous experiences, and unfolding circumstances’.  Only the last of these is normally considered by the warfighter or businessman trying to get an edge on his immediate adversary.
Nor are relations between Observation, Orientation, Decision, and Action limited to ‘feed forward’, as the Loop is usually diagrammed. Rather, there is feedback at every stage of the cycle. Note too that Boyd has now made a plural out of the Observation stage of the cycle:


Qualities of leaderships
Candor- it’s more then openness, it’s saying the things that need to be said without a lot of words, yes sir no sir, or under the table agendas. The battle field is the most honest place in the world. The stakes are to high and time to short to mess around with anything but the essence and truth. The candor of the battle field is why cohesiveness forms there so quickly and permanently and why lies told there are punished not with gossip but with actions. Officers can not lead well, if subordinates are telling them only what they think they want to here. Scorn sycophancy, servility/bootlicking, close cousins to backstabbing, character assassination and worst of all, pure corruption always fallows. All are enemies of meritocracy. Don’t be seduced by the dark side. Such actions are deliberately designed to thwart those who might otherwise advance based on competence. Officers must differentiate between appropriate respect and sycophantic or obsequious behavior, i.e. those who do there duty to the best of there abilities and those licking boots. Guide lines; those who work hard all the time vs. those working only when Cmdr is around. Those who are avid golfers and who accept invite to play vs. those who suddenly develop interest. Those who express honest opinions vs. those who express opinion coinciding with commander and who often express them publicly. Don’t be fooled by superficialities. Discipline goes deep and is the result of compliance and completion of major and minor orders and objectives. Fairness is a cornerstone of meritocracy. Fairness does not mean identical treatment for all. Rather what is best for the Marine and Corps. Explain your decisions about promotions, punishments, unit policies and so forth to subordinate commanders and staffs. So they can readily and logically explain them to their Marines. This is not to say that they must agree with them, but they do need to comprehend the rationale behind them. The SAS is different form the regular army, its all self discipline. No shouting, no bull, no one pulls rank and everyone is expected to express his opinion.
Commitment – The phrase “clean as you go” means that jobs started are finished. It means order and thoroughness as a matter of course. It means policing an area to keep it sat; in contrast to a periodic, hurried cleanup to make it momentarily sat. It means being on the JOB all the time. Commitment, mainly to people rather than ideas. To that old buddy and then squad, some to the larger unit and nation, but no where near as much as to the buddy. F.M. William Slim. “I tell you as officers, if you don’t eat, smoke, or sleep until your troops have done so, they well fallow you to the ends of the earth.” Last in the chow line, but first out of the fighting hole. Never say, get going, always say lets go. Thus, living by the same standards and in the same conditions, you will inspire their confidence in you and elicit trust in your judgment. Take care of them and they well take care of you. Troops do not give their trust and confidence to leaders who appear to be remote and unattached. Similarly, they are wary of those who appear to be unfamiliar or insensitive to their needs. You must learn their names quickly, call them by name and learn their specialties, strengths and weaknesses; this creates a personal bond between the individual and the commander. My captain knows me, the Marine will say. They will not mistake a poor commander for a good one. The relationship is one of daily contacts and is too continuous, to allow for any deceptions. If command is the highest responsibility of an officer, the first responsibility is to lead. DO NOTs & TABOOs: Avoid having people guessing your name. Do not use 3rd person, Ex; dose the Colonel, when addressing a Col. Never lean on a superior’s desk. Avoid profanity and vulgarity. Never volunteer excuses or explain short comings, unless asked to. Never indicate that you had recommended a different course of action. No bruised feelings or silent resolution the old NEXT TIME! Thus the general has five dangerous characteristic traits. One committed to dying can be slain. One committed to living can be captured. One easily angered and hasty to act can be fooled. One obsessed with being scrupulous and untainted can be shamed. One who loves the people can be troubled. One whose troops repeatedly congregate in small groups whispering has lost the masses. If they are leaning on there weapons they are hungry. If those who gather water drink first they are thirsty. When they see potential gain but do not advance they are tired. If the officers are angry troops are exhausted. If the Corps is turbulent the Commandant lacks severity. One who frequently grants rewards is worried. One who frequently imposes punishment is in trouble. Where troops have penetrated deeply troops and officers will be united fight hard, if only shallowly they will tend to scatter. To counter those more afraid drawl up formations often to accustom them to sights and sounds of battle. When punishment is administered, it is done impersonally, objectively, without rancor. Never resort to scorn or ridicule. The goal is to convince transgressors that they have everything to gain by doing their duty and being good Marines. Never promise a consequence that you cannot personally enact. An empty threat will only earn you scorn. Choose always the lesser punishment until convinced of its ineffectiveness. Get all the facts before taking action. Mutinies; punish ring leaders more than group. Always record counseling’s and get signature (whether one signs or not the counseling record is valid.) Later, such forms can be used to refresh your own memory of the actions as well as trace the development (or lack thereof) of the warrior’s character or duty performance.

I DO SOLEMNLY SWEAR THAT I WILL SUPPORT AND DEFEND THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES AGAINST ALL ENEMIES, FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC; THAT I WILL BEAR TRUE FAITH AND ALLEGIANCE TO THE SAME AND THAT I WILL OBEY THE ORDERS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE ORDERS OF THE OFFICERS APPOINTED OVER ME, ACCORDING TO THE REGULATIONS AND THE UNIFORM CODE OF MILITARY JUSTICE. SO HELP ME GOD.

Competence- This is the oldest and most important quality of leadership, you can have candor and commitment but if you’re not competent you won’t last. Competence established the pecking order. Which may or may not correspond to rank and chain of command, depending on the competence of those in the chain. No commander should be aloud to remain long at the helm. By rotation you avoid the cult of personality, leader becomes ordinary member. With second mission failure leader should resign. This can be over turned with confidence vote. But three defeats, ends command. Choose subordinate with most victories. One indicator of good leadership is when officers have higher casualty rate than enlisted. Unless enemy only targets command, like in Iraq. Note refer to Leadership Guidelines, platoon Commander. All things being equal, if fighting dose not end quickly, you can be fairly sure neither side has a leadership advantage. If one side has force advantage, you can be sure, smaller force has grater leadership.

James web management vs. leadership. It is much easier to educate a manager than to develop a leader. Management is the physics of things, it can be approached as an academic discipline, one can be taught to analyze data, weight alternatives and make decisions. Leadership is a subjective chemistry, filled with human variables. One must be able to motivate and reach the emotions, threw command presents, example and force. “When in war men must die” (an in war some must) “they can’t be managed to death, they must be lead there.” Sacrifice has and honored place in leadership but not in management.

The military it is socialistic in that the group is more important than the individuals, it is a meritocracy in that the ways of rating are not based on monetary terms but on values of performance that only matter within the unit, and are meaningless otherwise. For Leaders, management and subordinates conducting Maneuver warfare the fallowing can apply. The way of thinking to encourage initiative on the part of subordinates is to be in close touch with them, to be alert for breakthroughs, discoveries, and ideas that occur at the lowest level, to keep subordinates aware of corporate or unit goals and values, always keeping sensitive to speed, so successful operations are never slowed. For subordinates, the way of thinking is using personal initiative and independent thought to serve corporate or unit goals, close cooperation with one another, to take risks when opportune, to act now and never delay when action can reap advantage, act and inform rather than ask permission. In addition, for leaders, management and subordinates alike, the focus is always outward, situational awareness i.e. on the environment: for business, focus on the customer; for war, on the enemy. The sales person cannot ignore issues of dollars and cents, competition, economic changes. They can kill him. But focus on the customer prevails. Loyal customers mean there is a future.

For the soldier, it is the same. He cannot ignore logistics, terrain, routes of communication i.e. (LOC), and changes in the weather. They can kill him. But focus on the enemy prevails. A disrupted, confused, demoralized enemy means success. The hill is yours when the enemy quits, whether you've reached the hill yet or not. History shows any unit can be effective with good leadership.

Recruits drawn form the more intelligent 20% of population are twice as effective as lower 20%. Twenty one year olds more effective than teenagers. Conscript armies generally consist of only 15- 30% long term professionals. Volunteer army 40-70% pros. Western type military requires highly industrialized well educated pool of recruits. The best uniformed units are generally the least effective. A fresh coat of paint makes any weapon appear capable. Ship crews operate in more of a controlled situation, where drills, technique, and skills are decisive. Experience is perishable; Armed forces tend to retain no more information than their oldest member.

SAS developed a seriousness which dealt with each obstacle as an interesting challenge. Nothing was beneath consideration, from the calorific content of your food, the best method of putting on socks or applying band aids to blisters. Or the most energy saving way to climb a slope. On the surface it seemed almost boy Scoutish. They are not truculent (savage) or sadistic (abnormal delight in cruelty) as the Para’s are. The Para’s talk about everyman being an emperor. The SAS live it. SAS is without class, every officer first served in the ranks. They are free thinkers, that will question an order they think is wrong. They show stamina, initiative, independence, patience and self-discipline, a resilience to work without support and to endure loneliness without deteriorating. They believe as did the ancient Greeks who originated the word “aristocracy” that every man with the right attitude and talents, regardless of birth and riches, has a capacity in his own lifetime of reaching that status in its true sense. The Australian SAS in Vietnam, made the US Green Berets, look like amateurs. They had 500 kills and only one loss.

Leadership Guidelines
Leadership is the art of imposing one’s will upon others in such a manner as to command their respect, their confidence, and their whole-hearted cooperation. It’s part official and written but it’s mostly traditional and unwritten. With good leadership and discipline, achievement of the mission with minimum casualties is the rule. The main goal of leadership is discipline and cohesion in units, especially under stress. It’s a product of shared experiences, a confidence between commander and subordinates, who have the enthusiasms and ambitions of youth. There are few responsibilities equal in satisfaction to training, developing and leading young Marines. You will be assisted by NCOs the back bone of our Corps and who are Marines you will respect and whose respect you will treasure. Gen. Mc Author, master yourself before you seek to master others, learn to laugh yet never forget how to weep. The open mind of true wisdom the meekness of true strength. Patience under adversity of courage under fire, modesty in victory. We are reaching out to new and boundless frontiers. We speak in strange terms of harnessing the cosmic energy of making winds and tides work for us, of creating unheard of synthetic materials, to supplement or even replace our old standard basics. Purifying sea water, mining ocean floors for new fields of wealth and food. Disease preventatives to expand life into the hundreds of years. Controlling the weather for a more equitable distribution of heat and cold, rain and shine. Space ships to the moon. Of the main target in war no longer limited to the armed forces of an enemy but instead to include his civil population, of the ultimate conflict between a united human race and the sinister forces of some other planetary galaxy. Of such dreams and fantasies as to make life the most exciting of all time. The long gray line. The shadows are lengthening for me. Gray line (graduates program) and Age of iron equals refining /hardening of S.O.P.

Officers West point provides 25% of the over all 25k lieutenants for army every year. Mexican war 1846 there were 800 officers in USA corp. Class of 1915, “class the stars fill on”, 1/3 became generals, and one became President Eisenhower. U.S. Army uses parallel rank structure for enlisted troops instead of a lot of NCOs you have troops with the rank of specialist 4, 5, 6. The numbers represented pay grades. For senior more experienced technicians/troops, use was made of four grades of warrant officers. This rank was given all the privilege of officer. Now days less need or use of uniformed techs. Neither fish nor foul. Company grades these are apprentice/junior officers. Lieutenants and captains in the Marines/Army and Air force, Ensigns and lieutenants in the Navy. Command company size unit or small ship. Field grade major or Lt. Col. and Col. in Marines/Army or Air force, Lt. Cmdrs. Commanders and Captains in Navy. Command Battalions, Regiments, Brigades, ships of all size. Flag officers Generals in Marines/Army and Air force Admirals in Navy. Staff officers serve in staffs of unit’s one level higher than they would command. More officers serve in staff positions than in command positions. Each unit of battalion or larger has only one commander, but four or more staff officers. The battalion is the smallest unit that has a staff made up of officers, although even at company level there are officers and NCOs whose duties parallel those of staff officers.

A staff officer is an aid to commander, Assures unity of action throughout the command, by ensuring compliance with orders. Providing basic information and technical advice by which Cmdr may arrive at decisions. Relieves Cmdr of details by translating/drafting the basic decisions into adequate plans or orders. Transmitting them to subordinate leaders. Anticipates future needs. In short a properly functioning staff is an extension of the eyes, ears and will of the commander. The staff assists the commander in the performance of four functional areas. S1, S2, S3, S4. (S) Preface is used at Regiment or below, at Division the prefix (G) is used. Joint task force (J) is used also for Joint Chiefs. And sometimes in combined Commands (C). S1 Adjutant/Legal administration officer. Normally a Capt. duties Hqt. mgt. and myriad administrative tasks. Records, bookkeeper for all secretaries. The adjutant (One who Assist.) is usually also charged with maintaining the commanders official schedule as well as preparing and circulating Cmdr. correspondences. Unit strength management, responsible for officer personnel management. Social events, morale activities, supervises unit PRS ctr. Chaplin, Fire Dept., MPs. (the command Sergeant major is usually charged with enlisted personnel management). S2 Intelligence officer, normally a Major. Tactical Intel. Counter Intel. (Physical security, including safes). Collects, correlates, evaluates and interprets information. Clearances, maps, communications, recon MRS. intelligence training. Staff officers are often used as spies. Intelligence cushy job in peacetime, career killer during war. S3 Operations and training officer. Lt/Col. Responsible for planning, the unit readiness. Schools Cmd inspections program. Casualty Medivac. Operations officers often chief of staff. Chief of staff is the principal assistant to the Cmdr. At low levels Executive officer fills the function of the chief of staff. He is often a prior logistics officer. It is the best possible training towards becoming a battalion commander. S4 logistics officer. Usually a Major. Duties include supplies, allocation, inventories, transportation and maintenance. Command of logistics more difficult during wartime too.

In the Newjarheaddean the S1 would remain the same. S2 Department would be broken down into Intel (info gatherers), Counter Intel (preventing enemy from gathering info) and Counter Counter Intel (preventing enemy Counter Intel from preventing ones own Intel gathering in the first place or Countering ones Counter measures). S3 the way it is described above IMO sounds like the responsibilities of the Commander, assistant commander and their general staff i.e. secretaries. So I say make S3 the Science officer, to include medical officers, M.D. and Psychological, and bring the Chaplin (book thumpers) over from S1. Note the Chaplins would only serve as advisors on religious matters. S3 would also take on the responsibilities of civil affairs. S4 remains the same, there would be no S5, 6 7 8 9 or 10, (LOL). Note with Newjarheaddean division IMO Engineers should be combined with recon. There mission parameters could include prepping sites for basing i.e. in a guerrilla warfare situation engineer units could find vacant houses, terminate rats, bugs set up water, electricity etc.

Squad leaders;
The US WWII Squad referred to a leader, with scouts (Security), BAR team (Base of Fire) and riflemen (Maneuver). In WWII regardless of national origin, was comprised of three elements; machine gun group, riflemen group and the Squad Leader group, who provided the first link in the long chain of command that stretched all the way back to Divisional HQ and beyond. A Squad Leader was reinforced by his Assistant, either a second NCO or a senior Private. If the Squad Leader fell, he would take over command, nominating another to act as his deputy and potential successor. The leader had to direct his men to achieve their goals in a far more hands on manner than any other Cmdr above him. To survive, the squad needed to use terrain and supporting fire to maximum effect. It was vital to maintain its integrity i.e. operate as a single entity even when men were separated. The distance had to be monitored closely by the leader who could only affect control through vocal commands or hand signals, this before ICOMs. In any engagement, there could be a host of possible targets to engage. The key was to prioritize those targets and engage them in order of precedence. One man has to orchestrate the fire plan i.e. Squad Leader. The philosophy was better lose one man from the fire fight to direct the efforts of the remainder, than have all the Squad engaged in an undisciplined free for all. The temptation for the Squad Leader to join in the gun battle was always there, so he was issued a (shorter range) submachine gun. This diverted him from the lure of the longer range fire fight. Also, it increased the firepower of the Squad in the close quarter battle (CQB), putting the weapon in the hands of the man tasked with leading it. Another responsibility of the Squad Leader was to husband the ammo resources, as in when far forward and supplies may be limited. A typical Rifle Squad carried between 1500 - 1600 rounds of rifle and pistol calibers.

Light Machine Gun group;

Every man in the Squad could operate the gun and carried ammunition. In WWII, it was the sole means by which the Squad could project sustained, accurate, automatic fire. The gun could sweep an area in a way which individual riflemen could not. It could dominate an approach in the defense, or by turn fix enemy defenders to allow the Rifle Group to close for the assault and the riflemen aka Maneuver or Assault Group. Its size varied between six and eight men, dependent upon nation and, of course, casualties. It was the manpower pool of the Squad, providing quite literally its bayonet strength. The Rifle Group provided the Squad with its scouts, grenadiers and marksmen. Since the introduction of the light or general purpose machine gun, there has been a tendency to describe the riflemen as virtual ammunition bearers and escorts for the weapon. The evolution of tactics gives that argument some validity, but ultimately without the presence of the individual riflemen the Squad would prove a one dimensional tool. Its strength lay in the co-operation of the Rifle Group and Gun Group, united under the direction of the Squad Leader. In order to protect the light machine gun, alternative fire positions needed to be used. Once the Squad's weapon opened fire, it naturally made itself a target for retaliatory enemy action. If it stayed in the same spot for too long, return fire could be accurately and effectively zeroed in. Where possible, every advantage was taken of terrain and surroundings to allow the gun group to disengage and move to an agreed second location, without breaking cover. During this time, the riflemen were not idle. If the distance to the enemy line was too great to cross in a single bound, they would seek a defensible position. Once reached, this would enable the gun group to make their switch. Now it became the turn of the riflemen to provide cover fire, ideally directed against the enemy position of the greatest threat to their now vulnerable gun group. Once the light machine gun had reached its secondary position, the crew could recommence fire, this time from a different angle, thus forcing the return fire to be redirected. It may seem a logical compromise, but the idea of splitting the attacking force was to prevent the defender concentrating his fire on one target. Note refer to rule # 3 COE.

Platoon commander;

Usually a Lieutenant was uniquely positioned to share the frustrations of his men at the sometimes absurd orders they received from above, but was duty bound to carry them out to the best of his ability. He was also best placed to see the often-tragic consequences. There was also the question of whether he was the Plt's Leader, or its Cmdr, there is a subtle difference. Some officers lead from the front. While highly commendable they often paid the ultimate price. Armies needed to promote experienced Platoon Commanders to the next level, but they had to live long enough to gain that experience. Note refer to Qualities of leadership, commitment.
There is a limit to the number of men a Cmdr can exercise personal control over, roughly speaking around ten (as demonstrated on the sports field). That helped determine the size of the Squad. The Inf Plt could vary between as few as thirty or as many as fifty men. With three Sq Leaders and between 30 and 40 men, Lieutenants needed to learn the art of delegation using sq leaders to direct the efforts of their men and deploy support weapons. Without necessarily becoming embroiled in the fire fight. Yet when the unit faltered or found itself pinned down, it was the Plt Cmdr's responsibility to rise up and urge his men onward with the cry of follow me or come on lads! That was when the Commander became a Leader.
At this point leaders need to be keenly aware of tempo and the limits of readiness i.e. alertness of the majority of forces available.

Company commander;

The Rifle Company marked the first step on the way to the fully integrated 'all arms' team. Despite the ever increasing layers of fire support which existed to underpin its mission, it always had to be capable of doing the job alone. For the most part though, the Rifle Company acted in concert with the heavy weapons which made up the rest of the fighting strength of its Battalion and above. Some may be located in the Weapons Platoon, but the bulk would be held in the Weapons Company of the Battalion proper. Co HQ was generally split between command functions, administration and supply duties. The 'O' Group or orders group was composed of the, signaler, runners and relevant Section Cmdrs. These latter elements were usually a few cooks and supply personnel. It was headed by the Commander assisted by a senior Sgt., whose role it was to aid in the issue of orders and intelligence to the forward troops. In WWII, the Co C/P i.e.today’s COC, was normally a fixed position. In the assault, the Cmdr would often go mobile and take with him his Sgt, runners and signalers, and possibly some men to act as an escort. The burden of command was normally shared between two officers, the Company commander and his 2nC or Executive Officer (XO). The 2inC would establish a reserve fixed post, to which messengers could head in the event they could not find the mobile CP. The 2inC helped alleviate the workload in effect allowing the Company Commander proper to attempt the trick of being in two places at once i.e. one could maintain the company command post while the other went 'topside' to judge the situation for himself. German practice differed here, with there being only one officer at Co HQ, his deputy actually being the Cmdr of the 1st Plt. The Co Cmdr could have from 100 to 200 men under his command. Leadership required a different approach to that of a Plt leader/Cmdr. With various units attached to support his force. There was no way he could personally lead this number of elements spread across a frontage measured in the hundreds of meters. He had to exercise much more command and control by way of delegation to subordinates not personal leadership. The Co Cmdr needed to brief his subunit leaders including any attached assets on the mission and ensure each understood his role within it. Once his force deployed, his attention needed to focus on the overall progress of the battle, determining where success was being made and where efforts were faltering. He would also be acutely aware of developments on his flanks, where events involving neighboring units could demand others intervene in aid, or might find themselves exposed by a sudden reverse. He had then to decide how to best exploit or reinforce these areas. Simultaneously, he would be in touch with his Battalion superiors, who would be demanding updates and monitoring progress. During maneuvers; the actual separation distance between units would vary greatly, the most important determining factor probably being the nature of the terrain involved. However, it could not be allowed to become so great that it would impair the need for mutual flank protection between the Platoons. In the offense; one major concern was the divisions of forces between the assault echelon the reserve and or support elements. The Company Commander had to think of the battle as a developing struggle, and had to visualize his assets to enable him to in affect stay two or more moves down the line. To that end, he could only commit a portion of his troops to the initial assault, holding a number in reserve. Company Commanders tended to think of their unit as whole Platoons rather than individual Squads. Mathematically speaking, the decision was simple, one Platoon upfront, or two? The Reserves; One of the most vital decisions is when to commit the reserves. The ideal time would already have been identified during planning, usually signified by the capture of a primary objective allowing the exploitation phase to begin. Yet all too often enemy defenses well withstand the initial assault, forcing the commander to consider their earlier use. The commander who had only committed one of his platoons to lead the assault had the breathing space afforded by having two or more in reserve. The reserve could be used to regain proper intervals between units thus assuring mutual flank protection or to relieve pressure by outflanking i.e. launching its own attack on enemy unit being fixed by the fire of another thus bolster a lead platoon. Likewise, it could filter in to replace the platoon in the fire role, while the original unit attempted the flanking movement. The platoon could also be kept back in a reserve role, waiting to move through one of the forward units following a successful breakthrough of the enemy line, providing fresh legs to exploit the opening. Once the reserve element had been committed, the Company Commander would need to assemble a new one as soon as possible. In this instance, the unit it relieved could then become the new reserve as it gathered its strength and reorganized. Note refer to COE rule # 3 Maneuvers and formations.

Infantry battalion;

The Battalion Commander would normally be either a Lieutenant Colonel or Major.
Interestingly, the German Battalion had no 2inC at Battalion Headquarters rather the senior Company Commander would take over the role as required. Another option is the Supply Officer i.e. Quartermaster. Note the frontage covered? During maneuvers, In the offense, and Reserves; Principal responsibilities were the familiar questions of how much of his force should he commit to the initial offensive, and secondly how could he best employ his support weapons to aid them. One needs only to refer back to company commander’s notes above, substituting platoon with companies thus increase magnitude to appreciate battalion commander’s duties.


Note add much more from Marine officer’s guide MCA magazines and place in Appendix.
STEP # 3 Concepts of operations:

Part A)

We start with (I.S.A.L.U.E., R.W. P.) reports. Used to describe the forces, equipment and weapons available to all involved. Therefore, one would have foe and fellow forces, equipment and weapons reports. There could be a strategic grand report using general total figures, and or one report for each unit down to company level, or important individuals. Also one for each equipment or weapons class. What fallows is an example of listed items and information to be located after the various letters of the acronym (I.S.A.L.U.T.E.R.W.P.). It must be noted that starting with identification (I.D.) under the (I) on a computer it could be presented in bold or highlighted format; one could also use parenthesis or block lettering with a written report. The important thing to keep in mind is the I.D. is emphasized and used as a marker through out the report in all noted categories (after all letters in the acronym) to specify what figures/data relates to which I.D. i.e. individual, item or weapon. In a Forces available report, it is accepted that the sub categories fallowing the (U) are to numerous to separate each entry i.e. fact, within each sub category with a specific I.D. Therefore a typical entry would start with the I.D. fallowed by a paragraph of information keeping to the general order of sub categories. This rule may apply to (T) (R) and (P) too. These exceptions are made obvious in the detailed examples in the ISALUTERWP appendix.


2/11/11 Here below, I most admit things are a bit undecided to say the least but I'm getting there. I would appreciate some help too. And I am ashamed at my having to create new terms and acronyms (highlighted in pink), however for me it was necessary to aid in recalling all this system. 

FORCES AVAILABLE:
Example of a Forces Available report layout i.e. format, AKA an AFAR. Also note the acronym FEW for forces, equipment and weapons.  


I) this is an I.D. - that is to say the initial main/largest I.D. of subject answered strategically first i.e. Adversaries – Nation, state, province, county.  Ex; Russians, Indians, Chinese, or Israelis. Or a major branch of service. Ex; Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines. However this could be Tactical I.D. of an individual i.e. Name, including rank for military personal and tittles for civilians. With strategic or tactical I.D. we also include AKA, nicknames, or aliases. Example WWII Japanese, AKA Japs, slopes.  
S) Size – with units were talking numbers, individuals were talking measurements i.e. weight WWII Japanese trooper averaged 130 lbs. U.S. trooper averaged 160 lbs. and height. Japanese trooper averaged 5’/3” U.S. trooper averaged 5’/9”.
A) Activity – this is recent activities observed, here we well make use of the five Ws and H. Who, I.D. What, mission/deployments /training/tactics/appointments/jobs/duties/schedules/routines. Where, is location of specific actions. Could be grids, GPS, address etc. When, use 24 hour i.e. military system. Why, and How.
L) Location – grids, GSP, address. This is home ports, bases, or with individuals residence.
U) Unit – in depth I.D. more precise than under (I) i.e. Special ops, Infantry, air borne, air Mobile, mechanized, armor, artillery. Division, regiment, battalion, company, platoon, squad, section, or fire team. Memberships, associations, gang, party, organization, family, clan, tribe. Also structure of the chain of command next highest, lowest or adjacent units. If specific information is not available one might have to list numbers i.e. 3 companies per battalion. However it would be desired to name them. With individuals, Adult/child male/female. Note Descriptions for individuals use movie stars and other well known celebrities as a counter part comparisons. Photos, cosmetics, tattoos, scares. Uniforms, clothing, insignia, patches, awards, jewelry, apparel. Example; Iraqi guerrillas tend to be clean cut or have mustaches and well dressed. Where as farmers usually have beards.
T) Time – date and time of oriental recon i.e. the acquisition of the information and the last update. Also times and dates of events in the far i.e. past history of Units or individuals. Educational and medical records would be located here.  
E) Equipment – general over all lists of all equipment and weapons. Note, specifications would be located in Equipment and weapons reports. Unit’s composition/locations and numbers with in units, i.e. 18 guns per battery. Note this info is repeated in e-war under locations.
R) Reinforcements – An analysis of factual or possible assistance from other units or allies and effects on all units by all units movements support or lack there of. With individuals relationships, family ties.
W) Withdrawal – Routes, avenues of any kind being used or present on the battle field.
P) Personalities – attitudes, disposition, evaluation, ratings, religion, motivations, languages, statements, mottos.


EQUIPMENT AND WEAPONS AVAILABLE:

Example of Equipment and Weapons Available report layout i.e. format; AKA e-war. 1/29/11 these reports are still being developed. I'm working on hard copies and plan on just replacing these with the updated version soon.

I) I.D. designation/ AKA, nicknames. Note classification is detailed under (U).
S) Numbers, manufactured, available. Specifications Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording.
A) Activity this is recent activities observed, Here again we use the five Ws and a H. Who unit or individual. What specific activities observed i.e. deployments. Where specific locations of activities i.e. deployments. When time and date. How are they manufactured (note information would only be mentioned if it points out any weaknesses or strengths to the system), also disassemble, reassemble, operated, specific details on individual techniques of carrying or deploying. Trouble shooting, I.A.D or field striping.
L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, users of the weapon i.e. nation unit or individuals. Training ranges or schools. Composition/locations and numbers with in units, i.e. 18 guns per battery. Note this info is a repeat form equipment in Forces available report.
U) Units Variants i.e. models, caliber, photos, decals, color schemes. Also Utility uses/function/classification mounted or unmounted direct or indirect fire, crew served or small arms.
T) Date and time when information was acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.
E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes.  Transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional specifications i.e. details are located under other categories. 
R) Reinforcements Crews functions and any other support needed etc.  
W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.
P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;
Ranges, Max over all or max effective (could also include effective at what altitude) in meters for weapon rounds or (operational) miles for vehicles and aircraft. Minimum ranges, safety arming ranges for rounds or danger close for explosives in meters. Note repeated in ammo below.
Speeds muzzle velocity for weapons, rates of fire max or sustained for weapons, mph max or acceleration for vehicles or aircraft.
Trajectories/envelopes Trajectories paths for rounds. Elevation and traverse or gimble limits for weapons. Flight envelopes ceilings climb rates or Angles of attack for aircraft.
Ammo/Fuels type’s and characteristics; warheads fuses casualty radiuses for weapons. Note repeated in Ranges above. Fuels and lubricates for vehicles or aircraft. Capacity # of rounds in magazines or storage for weapons or gals/lbs of fuel for Vehicles or aircraft.
Casualty radius armor Breaching and protection abilities;

See Appendix ISALUTERWP for more detailed example.

Part B) MAPS, MODELS AND WEATHER;


AKA, your Bmw info could be written BMMW or BM2W.
Here we make use of yet another version of the Salute report.
Size: area of terra in sq. mi. greatest distance north and or south, east and west. Highest and lowest points, mean alt. Infrastructure statistics, numbers of everything. Lighting, location of switch board. Activity: could be land usages. Location: Grids, address, altitude, attitude/position. Unit: surface/vegetation, mountains, water shed, drainage, lakes, rivers. Time: seasonal changes. Climate and general history. Reinforcements:? With drawl: Traffic, secondary routes. Subterranean too. Air. Over all tips: Construction tips; for terrain models use natural materials in the field to disguise in case enemy finds. Have scale and keep items proportional never use same items to represent two different things. Speed chart, scale charts, grid square. The nature of the terrain is often of more consequence than courage. Terrain sense, study when possible by walking or riding over it. Observe from vantage point of both your view and foes. Know what terrain will allow both sides to do. One who dose not employ local guides cannot gain advantage of terrain. Note overlays and maps. Overlay clear plastic sheet with patrol routes, and any additional information not included in map legend. It is written in grease pencil. It is placed over map. It is orientated by using reference grids, they are aligned to a cross hire printed on overlay. If map and or overlay are captured, with out knowing reference grids they are useless. Note map making is now automated. With weather information for one day prior, actual day of and day after. (Note refer to Appendix MM&W for more information. Also, refer to PCP rule # 11 for information on avalanches. And Appendix PCP rule # 13 for information on glaciers)

Part C) ADMINISTRATION AND LOGISTICS:


AKA the call i.e. CAL.

A real working knowledge of maintenance, supplies and movement factors must be the basis of every leader’s plans. Only then can it be known how and when to take risk with these factors. Basically answers three questions. 1) The acquisition or procurement. 2) Storage and Maintenance 3) distribution or transportation of it all.

Principals; they are used to evaluate and monitor concepts and methods. 1) Unity of purpose – key words or phases, cooperative effort, integration of actions and ideas to produce a mutual understanding between R&D and users. Matching capabilities/resources/constraints with aspirations and requirements. With Guerilla warfare bandages, beans and bullets in that order. Combat values in order of importance are reliability, ease of use, mobility and destructive power. It is also important to understand that it is not worth planning on supplying (x amount of tanks with ammo when (x) number of tanks will not be available after (x) amount of time. More supplies dose not equal more fire power. Today extra fuel needed to move heavier equipment and more vehicles many of them, for transportation not combat. More ammo but better armor too. In cold maintenance takes more time. Note BS modern term Unity of effort. LOL.
Principals: 2) viability - able to exits. Staying power. Emphasize cost, economically sustainable. Distribution and protection ratio, always include safety margin. When push comes to shove more effort goes into producing new weapons not spares. 3) Resourcefulness, develop aptitude, innovation, imagination and ingenuity. Be proactive not reactive. Joke, when did Noah built the ark, before the rain. Simper Paratus (always prepared) make due with what you have. Indigenous supplies. Cannibalizing equipment, living off land. Isolation makes logistics very important. Example wilderness, no infrastructure and when operating on islands. Use of local materials to include the selective rubbling of structures in the defensive can reduce supply requirements.

Who, what, where, when, why, and how.
Categories, classification is not a fixed order, priorities of logistics must be base on type of unit, order of battle, mission and situation factors.


Part D) PATROL ORDER:


AKA i.e. referred to as the depot.

This is Information pertaining to patrols, you will always have alternates, even a complete alternative sheet.

CALL SIGN, SHACKLE SHEET:  this is a list of all information used in communicating i.e. call signs for mission success, failure, abort, medivac, all secure, friendly or foe WIA, KIA, MIA, and or POWs etc. there would be a section called a Shackle sheet for encoding of numbers. Morse code etc...
SPECIFFIC PATROL INFORMATION;
1) Unit information (UI) – your patrols call sign i.e. name used to refer to your unit. Frequency, channel or phone number.
2) Unit position (UP) – call sign, grid coordinates (Gs), could also be address. Feature of recognition (F.O.R.) some sort of land mark for others to find your location, or for you to use upon return. All F.O.R. need to be described and would need a call sign so to not give enemy listening to radio transitions clues as to the patrols local.
3) Time of departure (TOD) – time patrol is set to start. Use 24 hour and synchronize with all Marines within your patrol and all units involved.
4) Point of departure (POD) – call sign, Gs, F.O.R., description and call sign. Estimated time of arrival (ETA) that is when you should be there and prepared to leave.
5) Line of departure (LOD) – call sign, Gs, F.O.R., E.T.A., in this case E.T.A. is when you will arrive at line of departure. At which time contact with foe is not only possible it is likely.
6) Patrol routes (PR) - call signs, cardinal or azimuth direction, distance or time (CAD-T) to remain on course. F.O.R. and suggested formations. There are multiple routes and you need reminding that you are on track. There for you will have call signs and features (plural) of recognition. Usually F.O.R. indicates i.e. is fallowed by a change in formation. So unit is better situated for different terrain.
7) Check points (C points) – call signs, Gs, F.O.R., ETA. Check points are usually in the range of 1km in jungle terrain. They are intersections of patrol routes; normally indicate a change in course. You well check your location and orientation do a roll call, check weapons, equipment, make any adjustments to schedules at these points.
8) Rally points (RP) - call signs, Gs, F.O.R. rally points are locations Marines can regroup with one another if they are separated. There is a final rally point that is used for regrouping after your unit has gone though objective. Because you will often scatter and leave objective in all directions, so witnesses cannot make a guess as to your general direction of travel, and thus your next objective. This also gives each Marine a chance to spot any enemy scouts or reinforcements in or approaching the area. If you are spotted on your way to the final rally point, you should lead foe away. The Final rally point dose have an ETA because you will not won’t to wait around there very long. You also have a password or signal and an avenue or direction of approach, as well as approach time intervals. Example, at hour or half hour marks. A rule of thumb is one or two can brake all the rules, many not any. This keeps you from killing some poor exhausted delirious just trying to get there bastards. One or two troops are not going to take your position. Large units on the other hand have no excuse. You can also post a Reception unit (PPP projected protective party) out in direction of approach (like a door butler). This unit can also serve as a maneuver counter attack unit if Final rally point is attacked. Note in some circumstances (deep in enemy terrain with only one extraction point) it is safer for the entire unit to withdrawal from objective as a fighting column.
9) Objective (the O) – call sign, Gs, F.O.R. for air operations, features that stand out from the ground may not make good landmarks from the air, especially at night. These are the sort of things you should be looking for: Coastline in distinctive stretches, especially with breaking surf or white sands, river mouths over 100 meters wide or sharp promontories or inlets. Bends in rivers more than 100 meters wide, heavily wooded banks will reduce their visibility. Canals, their straight course and consistent width make them easy to spot, except where the surrounding countryside follows a uniform pattern (urban areas). Lakes at least a half square mile in area with a distinctive shape or feature. Woods and forests a square mile or more in size, with clear-cut boundaries or some special identifying feature. Major road and highway intersections. Railways, especially visible when there is snow on the ground.
You well also note here a General plan of attack; who, what, where, when, why, how.


note after the "general phases of an attack" notes, you well find the rest of the patrol order items listed.

General phases of an attack;

one the approach, two contact, three the assault and four consolidation, this is all very much like the aerial combat phases of Detection, Sorting, Targeting, Intercept, Engage and Separation. Note with today’s Satellites, near space assets and UAVs the Detection, Sorting and Targeting phases could be separate phases prior to Approach, with Approach equaling patrols SOP i.e. conduct of maneuvers and Intercept phase equaling Contact, Engage equaling Assault, Separation equaling Consolidate if engagement does not end favorably to unit.


Phase one The Approach; ideally, at this point you are not under fire i.e. the foe dose not know your maneuvering on their position. Primary rules to consider i.e. more useful information for this phase can be found in the section titled Preparations and conduit of patrols. Your plan may include diversionary or decoy measures.
Inserting into hostile territory: Air options, there are three Airborne and two Airmobile variants. Airborne; 1) Low altitude low opening (LALO) WWII, troops dropped form 1k’ they had only four to five seconds to choose between life and death. 2) High Altitude Low Opening (HALO). 3) High Altitude High Opening (HAHO). Breathing pure oxygen for 45 minutes before jumping to prepare for lack of oxygen at altitudes of 28k’-30k’. Then using self contained rigs, at 18k’-15k’ air content is good. Temperature -45 degrees. 20k’-30k’ jump, Note Breathing pure oxygen for preparations for mountain operations? Air mobile operations (AMO). This is actually landing, as on an LZ. There are two options. 1) Helicopters, for hot landing zones helicopters would be loaded with fewer Marines for quicker debarking. When Marines planning on repelling or jumping out of helicopters, they could drop Alice packs from altitude onto landing zone first (anti minefield).
2) Fixed wing aircraft (powdered or gliders) can also land on LZs. Considerations, a) Do you have a Reception unit, to act as guides and porters, transport people and supplies to safe locations, provide security and 'sterilize' the site. (Commands/voices from below can be heard quite well by paratroopers). Reception units are assets to all insertions. But may not always be available. In some cases you will have to go in blind. b) Do adequate DZs or LZs exist? LZ chosen, with regard to time available, direction of the sun and wind. Aircraft won’t to land and take off into the wind. Release point or beginning of runways marked with arrow pointing in direction of approach, coinciding also the wind and only visible from approach side. Wind speed indicated by additional flares in arrow stem after three, flare intervals 25 meters. One extra = 5-10 mph, 2=10-15 mph, 3= 15-25 mph, higher than 25 mph consider another day. Note see Appendix patrol order part A, for info up to point of noted continuation of other considerations.
Continuation of other considerations  c) Cover and concealment in area. Dimensions of landing zone, azimuths and range of F.O.R. as well as obstacles are recorded and reported as if in center of landing zone and in clockwise manner. Paratroopers do not want to land in cultivated fields. It is difficult to conceal tracks. d) Fire power you can bring to bare and enemy air defenses. e) How good are the foe’s defenses, radars and air traffic control systems?
f) Weather to land on or near, than maneuver troops to objective. Surprise can sometimes be achieved landing on site. Advantages of Gliders and helicopters, all Marines land together on objective, more rested for combat.
Note see Appendix patrol order part B for details on parachuting.
Amphibious insertions: Consider many of the factors that affect airborne/airmobile insertions, available and types of coastlines. Best to land between high and low tides where sand is firmest and at night due to wind direction. Do you have kit to make sure sea water can't affect vital pieces of equipment?

Over Land operations: Infiltration overland can be the most secure way of all for insertion, especially if time is not all-important. DZs or LZs and especially amphibious insertions are unlikely to be right next door to objective and will probably end up as overland journeys anyways. Even in time of war, it is usually possible to gain access to the enemy's territory from a neighboring country along long unprotected boards.

Phase two Contact; at this point, your cover has been compromised; you may come under attack from foe’s indirect fires, CAS, and or small arms, thus you may utilize your own. Immediate actions may include smoke for screening and signal flares for other units to begin maneuvers or supportive measures. Note from TDG/MCA: the unit SOP used a white star cluster as a signal for “shift or lift fire” and a red star cluster for “emergency, I need help now.”


Over land operations, could also involve interring through customs, using, false identities and disguises. The success of this method depends on the quality of your cover and documentation. Fabrications and forgeries serve as evidence when real documents are not available. Do not travel to nation your foreign documents are issued from.
Price of documents; those issued from nation with most influence in area are the cheapest priced. The biggest advantage of this approach is that once you have gotten through the identity checks, searches and interrogation, you will be able to live quite openly in enemy territory. Customs questioning; reason for travel, how did you get money, how long will you stay, who well meet you, where are you going to stay, what will you be doing, how did you get passport. Residence; ground floors provide opportunity for digging trenches, tunnels. Always have document, equipment and weapons hides. Emergency exits/routes. Evacuation plans, know who will leave with documents, who will destroy what’s left. You should not chose perimeter apartments especially for meetings. Do not rent in immoral areas or near police fire or government buildings. Rent in newly developed areas, these neighbors do not know each other yet. Older neighborhoods have nosy old people. Rent under false names and appearance. One person should not rent two apts. in same area. Have cover stories for visitors. Entry signals, example a curtain placed a certain way, to indicate all clear. Avoid isolation from public, traffic at odd hours. Do not show up as blue collar worker at doctor’s apt. unless your cover is repairman. Other covers for contact, relatives visiting. Phone answering and or monitoring procedures. Upon arrival in new city head for laundry mat, read billboards.
Meetings debark transportation far from objective and walk to objectives, avoid main bus and transit stations. Traveling, do not arrive at night, fewer people around during day. To uncover a tail, drop something and observe who picks it up. Joke: mailing yourself a copy of the constitution so they may read it. Get on bus and off at next stop. Driving in then out i.e. threw parking lots. Switch cars in parking lots, long before closing. Then just before closing, call tow truck to hall used car onto street near lot. You should disable interior lights. Do not inter meeting location before person your to meet with dose. You could be target for him sitting there. If person you are meeting with leaves to go to bath room or to get something, wait for his return in another location, for instance you might go stand at bar. Depart meetings separately always know secondary exits, use side streets. No items or evidence to I.D. you should be left behind. Finger prints on drinking glasses, rap it with a napkin. Go to bathroom to write notes.

Phase three The Assault; at this point units are breaching the foes defenses i.e. kicking in the gates, you are inside the wire. Primary rules to consider here can be found in the section titled Conduit of engagements.
Other points to consider; in defense, a unit doubles or triples its combat power. Three to one ratio applies not just to Infantry but equipment. Ratio varies with size of force, platoon level maybe 10-1, theater 1-1 or 1-2 because only small part of terrain is fought over at a time. Nevertheless, with larger ratio less time is required to win. Information good, terrain/weather good day raid. Information bad, terrain/weather bad night raid. The worst the weather, longer the battle, more fatigue, greater the casualties. Deep operations are actions against enemy forces not yet in contact with friendly. Prevent foe from massing, create opportunities for other offensive actions, disrupt C4IRS and supplies. Slows foe down. Airpower and artillery are main weapons used. Light infantry is particularly suitable in areas of constricted terrain, fighting in MOUT and conducting airborne/mobile operations. Airborne/mobile operations used to seize key objectives before they are destroyed. Medical buildings, malls, stadiums, schools, (take advantage of air conditioning and electrical systems in large buildings). Parks, sports fields, swimming pools, construction sites, lumber and steel mills or yards, maintenance gauges. When a large force is concentrated on a narrow front attempting to break lines, airborne/mobile units may bypass adversaries’ main defenses to destroy artillery, C4I and logistical targets and secure key terrain in foe’s stern.

Phase four Consolidation; the British refer to the fourth phase as “fighting through” it includes mopping up and securing the area i.e. setting up in a defensive position in preparation for a counter attack. Primary rules to consider here are located in the section titled Defense, initially along the lines of Conduct of defense i.e. after enemy has been repelled, pursue foe with a steady stream of fire, (shoot them right in the back) find, attend too and report all causalities, inventory and redistribute ammo etc.
During lulls in the fight, the squad leader checks ammunition and has ammunition collected from the dead and wounded.
Fallowed by setting up the defense i.e. perform defensive rules # 3 onward. Also very important information to consider can be found in Conduct of Engagements section under Over all tips, sub section Characteristics of MOUT, under sub section Reorganization.   
Note with this last phase you can also consider the aerial i.e. dog fight last phase of Separation if you are conducting small i.e. unconventional tactics of hit and run. Or if engagement does not go favorably for your unit.
Note remarks in aerial information such as making note of your exit routes i.e. friendly lines or direction of friendly units, rally points etc.  

continuation of the patrol order.
10) Support, reserves and R.O.E. (Sup-er) – there would be a list including Units, equipment or weapons available fallowed by grid co ordinances designating, areas (i.e. boxes or squares) where units could provide support. Basically you only need to know, who to contact (call signs and frequencies etc are located on call sign shackle sheet) and how and where unit can help you. NOT THEIR LOCATIONS this is so if any foe gets hold of your units Patrol order, they do not have all other units’ locations. Joke; remember if your foreword of your phase line, artillery will be short on its target.
R.O.E.; Rules of engagements, any specifics. Troops most remember the political and psychological impact of their actions. Local populations may be neutral or have luke warm feelings for the foreign forces. Excessive use of force can cause locals to support foe. In MOUT troops most be concerned with the media due to large number of journalist. Any negative images can be published. Be open to the press play them against each other if one dose a negative story invite competitor to do an investigative report of its own. Note make feature note of other mentions of media example under pro and anti guerrilla/insurgency operations. Note also these points would only apply with a guerrilla group since government and media are “in Bed with each other”.


Maneuver vs. Attrition

Maneuver: Waged against leadership, kills fewer on both sides. Characterized by a clean battle field, smaller foot print, less equipment, weapons and fewer troops used. With fewer troops on front more need for auto entrenching equipment. Economy of force – Example; in the defense taking every third Marine off a wall to move elsewhere. More than mass multiplied by speed, it is getting there first with the best. Valor is superior to numbers. Being more agile and efficient. Smaller more maneuverable forces can win, if things over quickly. “One must adjust to fighting limited engagements by minimal means for specific goals”. The days of single purpose missions are over. Another words, while on your mission, you most have multiple objectives and capabilities to assist others with information etc. Requires skill and daring by offices and willingness form superiors to tolerate an occasional mistake or loss.
The "zero defects mentality" must be exchanged for an environment in which all Marines are afforded the "freedom to fail" and with it, the opportunity to succeed. Leaders will only seize the initiative Marines say if they’ve been delegated true operational authority. The battle field leader senses the trust and responsibility. On whole it will inspire leaders to do better. There will be some incompetence and even some Lieutenant Caleys, (The My Lai massacre.) But the forces will move faster then those lead by leaders taught to do only what there told. Success is gauged by POWs, it suggest foe has not been able to adapt to changing situation that friction has over whelmed, C4i has broken down. Note see also 3rd generation warfare notes below.

Attrition: Gives the illusion of predictable and reliable results. It’s a toe-toe slug match in which each side assumes that the other will abide by predictable rules and that sheer weight of numbers and materiel well determine the winner. Its equivalents in sports are tug of war and demolition derbies, in nature sea wearing down the stones. Foe viewed as unchanging mass. It is war in the administration. In which the important decisions are in fact logistical. Foe treated as inventory of targets and warfare is a mater of mustering support and resources. Drawn out war can cause foe to be dishearten if expecting a quick end and return home. Success gauged by KIAs. “You can win a war with bombs and blockades, but only the infantry can end the war”. IMO basis for US strategy with indigenous personal being recruited for the later i.e. end game. Brezhnev joked that, “Quantity has a quality of its own”.


Generations of War
Many argue that the evolution of war is shaped by a many-sided battle of ideas (with technology in a supporting role). They assert our adversaries are learning to counter the conventional attrition doctrine of the technology and firepower intensive forces of industrial based armies. They call this new form of warfare 4th Generation Warfare to contrast it to warfare of the 1st Generation (tactics of line and column, e.g., Napoleon), the 2nd Generation (the industrial logistics/firepower intensive attrition tactics from Civil War through WWI), and the 3rd Generation (maneuver warfare as evolved out of the German's 1918 infiltration tactics to blitzkrieg to the mission tactics adopted by the Marine Corps in the 1980s).
The 4th Generationists assert that the end of the Cold War neutralized the organizing dynamics of the bi-polar cold war rivalry and thereby unleashed a welter of nationalist, ethnic, religious, tribal, and criminal conflicts among state and non-state actors. They say these players fight differently and we better learn to exploit their very different weaknesses while avoiding their strengths.

 On our Wilderness Road expedition, my friend and I visited the site of Drapers Meadows (now part of the Virginia Tech campus, Blacksburg), where Shawnee Indians captured a few whites and slaughtered the rest of that settlement's inhabitants in 1755. That made me interested in the French and Indian War. I looked it up in an old set of "The New Book of Knowledge" and found this passage:

 In 1755 General Braddock arrived from England to take charge of the British troops … (He) had never fought in North America, where the enemy hid behind trees, melted away in the darkness, and never stood still to be fired at. Braddock had learned his fighting tactics in Europe, where armies fought in regular formations. Though Washington and the Indians [friendly scouts] told him otherwise, Braddock simply could not believe that tactics used by the best armies of Europe would not work against a ragged French-Indian force. The result was a French massacre of the British forces at Fort Duquesne. Two thirds of the approximately 1,500 British who fought were killed or wounded. Braddock himself was killed.

 SP 12/14/08 The MIC always lean towards preparing for a large, conventional type war. Even though most of American military history consists of irregular warfare. Conventional wars were few, and brief. During the 18th and 19th centuries, most American military activity, at least in terms of years, was all about irregular warfare. Fighting Indians and frontier disorder defined the careers of generations of American troops. Even the American Revolution was largely irregular warfare, and often decisive irregular operations at that. The first four decades of the 20th century was largely irregular warfare and peacekeeping for U.S. forces. After WWII, there was more still, including the decade long war in Vietnam. But through all this, the MIC leadership focused on conventional warfare, and deliberately ignored the valuable lessons learned in generations of irregular warfare. It was as if irregular warfare was considered an exception, and conventional warfare the only thing that mattered. Another problem with irregular warfare is that, when these conflicts come along, the military establishment, and their political counterparts, proceed as if it's still peacetime. The military, especially those closest to the fighting, adopt a wartime mentality of urgency and immediacy. This causes friction with the military bureaucracy, who don't like to be hustled unless there is a national emergency they can identify with.

 To counter such threats, these thinkers argue, that we will need fast-transient, expeditionary forces skilled in littoral penetration operations, SOPs, political military operations, counter-drug, counter-terrorist, and nuc operations, police work, all taking place more often in high density urban/suburban areas.

 Without changing our patterns of thought, we will not be able to solve the problems we created with our current patterns of thought.
Albert Einstein
While military development is generally a continuous evolutionary process, the modern era has witnessed three watersheds in which change has been dialectically qualitative. Consequently, modern military development comprises three distinct generations. Modern war began with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 which ended the Thirty Years War. Why? Because with that treaty, the state, which was itself relatively new, established a monopoly on war. After 1648, first in Europe and then world wide, war became something waged by states against other states, using state armies and navies (and later air forces).
1st GW is war between states it lasted from the Peace of Westphalia until around the time of the American Civil War. Most of the things that define the difference between “military” and “civilian”; such as saluting, uniforms, ranks i.e. military culture of order. Battles were fought with smoothbore muskets using lines and column tactics. These tactics were developed partially in response to technological factors — the line maximized firepower, rigid drill generated a high rate of fire, etc. — and partially in response to social conditions and ideas, e.g., the columns of the French revolutionary armies reflected both the élan of the revolution and the low training levels of conscripted troops. Although rendered obsolete with the replacement of the smoothbore by the rifled musket, vestiges of first generation tactics survive today, especially in a frequently encountered desire for linearity on the battlefield. Operational art in 1st GW did not exist as a concept although it was practiced by individual commanders, most prominently Napoleon. Just as most state militaries are still designed to fight other state militaries, so they also continue to embody the 1st GW culture of order. The problem is that, starting around the middle of the 19th century, the order of the battlefield began to break down the old line and column tactics became suicidal i.e. increasingly contradictory to the lack or order.

2nd GW It was developed by the French in WWI to re-establish order on the battlefield. 2nd GW preserved the military culture of order it focused inward on orders, rules, processes and procedures. There is a "school solution" for every problem. Battles are fought methodically, so prescribed methods drive training and education, where the goal is perfection of detail in execution. 2nd GW like the First, values obedience over initiative (initiative is feared because it disrupts synchronization) and relies on imposed self discipline. 2nd GW saw the formal recognition and adoption of the operational art, initially by the Prussian army. Again, both ideas and technology drove the change. The ideas sprang largely from Prussian studies of Napoleon's campaigns. Technological factors included Von Moltke's realization that modern tactical firepower mandated battles of encirclement and the desire to exploit the capabilities of the railway and the telegraph. While ideas played a role (particularly the idea of lateral dispersion), technology was the principal driver of change. Technology manifested itself both qualitatively, in such things as (barbed wire, rifled musket, breechloaders, the machineguns, heavier indirect fire artillery and bombing aircraft) and quantitatively, in the ability of an industrialized economy to fight a battle of materiel (Materialschlacht).
2nd GW aka firepower/attrition warfare tactics relied on centrally-controlled indirect artillery fire synchronized with infantry, cavalry and aviation. However tactics remained essentially linear. The defense still attempts to prevent all penetrations, and in the attack a laterally dispersed line advanced by rushes in small groups. Perhaps the principal change from 1st GW tactics was heavy reliance on indirect fire; 2nd GW tactics were summed up in the French maxim, "the artillery conquers, the infantry occupies." Massed firepower replaced massed manpower. The US Army and the U.S.M.C. both learned 2nd GW from the French during the WWI, 2nd GW tactics remained the basis of U.S. doctrine until the 1980s, and it largely remains the "American way of war" today.
3rd GW aka Maneuver Warfare, has its roots in the German Army in WWI i.e. spring offensive of 1918. The German Army's new 3rd GW infantry tactics were the first non linear tactics, it also broke with the 1st and 2nd GW culture of order. Instead of trying to restore order the German’s used chaos by relying less on firepower than on speed and tempo. It sought to present the enemy with unexpected and dangerous situations faster than he could cope with them mentally or physically. 3rd GW militaries focus outward on the situation i.e. the enemy, and the result the situation requires. Leaders at every level are expected to get that result, regardless of orders. Decentralization and focusing on the enemy rather than terrain and valuing initiative higher than obedience are central characteristics of maneuver warfare. The driving force was primarily ideas. Mistakes are tolerated and self discipline, rather than imposed discipline, is encouraged. A well trained officer corps, educated in the spirit of the commander is another central requirement for maneuver warfare. The defense was in depth and instead of trying to hold a line it often invited penetration, which set the enemy up for a counterattack. The object was to draw the enemy in, then cut him off. On the offensive, with the German "storm-troop tactics" of 1918 the attack relied on infiltration to bypass i.e. flow like water around enemy strong points, reaching deep into the enemy's stern area and rolling his forward units up from the flanks and stern thus collapsed the enemy's forces rather than seeking to close with and destroy them. These WWI infantry tactics, when used by armored and mechanized formations in WWII, became known as “Blitzkrieg.” When 2nd and 3rd GW met in the German campaign against France in 1940, the 2nd GW French Army was defeated completely and quickly; the campaign was over in six weeks. Both armies had similar technology, and the French actually had more (and better) tanks. Ideas, not weapons, dictated the outcome. The addition of tanks caused a major shift at the operational level in World War II. That shift was blitzkrieg. In the blitzkrieg, the basis of the operational art shifted from place (as in Liddell-Hart's indirect approach) to time. This shift was explicitly recognized only recently in the work of retired Air Force Col John Boyd and his "OODA (observation- orientation- decision- action) theory."

 4th GW is not, like its predecessors, a new method of war. Rather the state monopoly on violence is being lost.

 The root of the problem is a political, social i.e. moral revolution: a crisis of legitimacy of the state. All over the world, citizens of states are transferring their primary allegiance away from the state to other things: tribes, ethnic groups, religions, Corporations, gangs, ideologies. Many people who will no longer fight for their state will fight for their new primary loyalty. In Iraqi state armed forces showed little fight, but Iraqi guerrillas whose loyalties are to non state elements, fight. The decline of the state means there can be no purely military solution. This is especially the case when the military force is foreign; usually, its mere presence will further undermine the legitimacy of the state it is attempting to support.

 We sometimes (misleadingly) call war against non state opponents "Operations Other Than War" (OOTW) or “Stability and Support Operations” (SASO).

 Much of 4GW is simply war as it was fought before the rise of the state and the Peace of Westphalia. Societies knew little internal order or peace; Mercenaries were hired, bands of men with weapons, when not hired out for wars, simply took whatever they wanted. In fact, before Westphalia, business enterprises, clans, Ethnic groups, Families, gangs, tribes, races and Religions, waged wars. These wars were often many sided, and alliances shifted constantly. The lines between “civilian” and “military”, and between crime and war, were non existent. Tactics included, assassination, bribery, betrayal, treachery, even dynastic marriage.

 4th GW will have no definable battlefields or fronts. Terms Front-stern will be replaced with targeted-untargeted. Lines between responsibility and mission well blur. The tactical and strategic levels will blend as the opponent's political infrastructure and civilian society become battlefield targets. In fact targets may be more in the civilian than the military sectors. It seems likely to be widely dispersed. Actions will occur concurrently throughout all participants' depth, including their society as a cultural, not just a physical, entity. Major military facilities, such as airfields, fixed communications sites, and large headquarters will become rarities due to their vulnerability; this may be true of civilian equivalents, i.e. seats of government, power plants, and industrial sites (including knowledge as well as manufacturing industries).

 Technology; computer viruses, including latent viruses, may be used. Research in superconductivity suggests the possibility of storing and using large quantities of energy in very small packages. Directed Energy Weapons (DEW) may bring electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects without a nuclear blast. Permitting small teams to destroy targets they could not with conventional weapons i.e. it is possible that a fire team could have the same battlefield effect as a current brigade. Car bombs may contain a product of genetic engineering rather than high explosives?
Psychological operations may become the dominant operational and strategic weapon in the form of (Logic bombs) and media/information intervention i.e. manipulating the media to alter opinion. A major target will be the enemy population's support of its leadership. However its effectiveness could rapidly eliminate the ability of a nuclear-armed opponent to wage war conventionally. Destruction or disruption of vital industrial capacities, political infrastructure, and social fabric, coupled with sudden shifts in the balance of power and concomitant emotions, could easily lead to escalation to nuclear weapons. This risk may deter 4th GW among nuclear armed powers just as it deters major conventional warfare among them today.

 4th GW will merely accentuate and combined all this. 3rd (not to speak of 2nd GW) militaries seem to have little capability against such synthesis. This could be a signpost of a typical generational shift.

 Thus we see two major catalysts for change in previous generational shifts: technology and ideas. Technology was the primary driver of 2nd GW; ideas were the primary driver of the 3rd. An idea-based 4th GW is also conceivable.

 For about the last 500 years, the West has defined warfare. For a military to be effective it generally had to follow Western models. Because the West's strength is technology, it may tend to conceive of 4th GW in technological terms. However 4th GW may emerge from non-Western cultures, such as Arab or Asiatic. Thus trailing in technology may lead them to develop 4th GW through ideas rather than technology.
The genesis of an idea-based 4th GW may be visible in terrorism. This is not to say that terrorism is 4th GW, but rather that elements of it may be signposts of 4th GW. Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, and so far it has proven largely ineffective.

 Terrorists resolve the order vs chaotic battlefield dilemma by eliminating the culture of order. Terrorists do not have uniforms, drill, saluting or, for the most part, ranks. Being a broader culture and non-Western may facilitate this development.
Even in equipment, terrorism may point toward signs of a change in generations. Typically, an older generation requires much greater resources to achieve a given end than does its successor. Today, the US is spending $500 million apiece for stealth bombers. A terrorist stealth bomber is a car with a bomb in the trunk a car that looks like every other car.

 Some "carryovers" from 3rd GW. The more successful terrorists appear to operate on broad mission orders that carry down to the level of the individuals. The 'battlefield" is highly dispersed and includes the whole of the enemy's society. The terrorist lives almost completely off the land and the enemy. Two additional carryovers may be useful "signposts" of 4th GW. The first is a component of collapsing the enemy. It is a shift in focus from the enemy's front to his stern. Terrorism must seek to collapse the enemy from within. 1GW focused tactically and operationally (when operational art was practiced) on the enemy's front, his combat forces. 2GW remained frontal tactically, but at least in Prussian practice it focused operationally on the enemy's stern through the emphasis on encirclement. The 3GW shifted the tactical as well as the operational focus to the enemy's stern. Terrorism takes this one step further. It attempts to bypass the enemy's military entirely and strike directly at his homeland at civilian targets. The second signpost is the way terrorism seeks to use the enemy's strength against him, this "judo" concept begin in 2GW, with encirclement. The enemy's fortresses became fatal traps. It was pushed further in 3GW where, on the defensive, one side often let the other infiltrate so his own momentum makes him less able to turn and deal with a counterattack. Terrorists use a free society's freedom and openness, its greatest strengths, against it. They can move freely within the society while actively working to subvert it. They use democratic rights not only to infiltrate but also to defend themselves. If we are forced to set aside our legal system to deal with terrorists, the terrorists win.

 Attacking the enemy's culture works from within as well as from without. It can bypass not only the enemy's military but the state itself. The US is already suffering heavily from such a cultural attack in the form of the drug traffic. Drugs directly attack our culture. They have the support of a powerful "fifth column," the drug buyers. They bypass the entire state apparatus despite our best efforts. Some ideological elements in South America see drugs as a weapon; they call them the "poor man's ICBM”. They prize the drug traffic not only for the money it brings in through which we finance the war against ourselves but also for the damage it does to the hated North Americans.

 Our national security capabilities are designed to operate within a nation-state framework. Outside that framework, they have great difficulties. The drug war provides an example. Because the drug traffic has no nation-state base, it is very difficult to attack. The nation-state shields the drug lords but cannot control them. We cannot attack them without violating the sovereignty of a friendly nation. A 4GW attacker could well operate in a similar manner, as some terrorists already do. A non-national or transnational base, such as an ideology or religion. SP Syria hosted terrorists for two reasons. Most importantly, this provided the dictator with considerable immunity to terrorist attacks. Second, this close relationship with terrorists made it easy to hire the terrorists for some freelance murder. Dictators have a lot of enemies, and having some grateful (for the sanctuary) terrorists on call, is a good way to deal with people out to do you harm. IMO note the same basic reasons for the ISIs support for the Taliban in Pakistan.
Note however then there’s the theory that Saddam did not let so called Al queda in out of fear they would take over.

 5th GW note Maj Mark W. Elfers Gazette June 2009,
The author states, “[O]ur next conflict could well be small, morally confusing, and idea centered, combining the worst ends of Saigon, Mogadishu, 11 September 2001, and Baghdad.” LtCol Coerr’s first point is that America’s (5GW) opponent may not have a center of gravity (COG). Secondly that the state will lose its position as the prime mover and redresser of grievance. Thirdly that success in 5GW is inversely proportional to the amount of military force used. The following are counterpoints to LtCol Coerr’s thesis.

 When current irregular warfare opponents are broken down to their basic components, one finds highly organized international criminal organizations. They conspire to kill people and to destroy property in order to develop or to secure their own positions of power. They use religion because it polarizes the issues.

 4th GW is guerilla warfare more than “terrorism.” Terrorism is a single enemy tactical action designed to have direct operational or strategic effect. Because targets that have such operational or strategic effect are few and are usually well-protected, terrorism normally plays a minor role in 4th GW conflicts.

 Terrorism also appears to represent a solution to a problem that has been generated by previous generational changes but not really addressed by any of them.

 Colonel David Hackworth in Vietnam, called this “out-guerilla’ing the guerilla,” or “out-g’ing the G.” In his memoirs, About Face, he wrote, we would no longer be the counterinsurgents who, like actors on a well-lit stage, gave all their secrets away to an unseen, silent and ever-watchful (insurgent) audience in a darkened theater. Instead we would approach the battlefield and the war as our enemy approached it, and in so doing begin to outguerilla the guerilla – “out-G the G”. The basic concepts, men, not helicopters or mechanical gimmicks, won battles, and that the only way to defeat the present enemy in the present war at a low cost in friendly casualties was through adopting the enemy’s own tactics, i.e., cunning, deception, surprise, mobility . . . imagination, and familiarity with the terrain . . . In training Field training should be freeplay exercises against guerilla opponents who are allowed to make full use of such typical guerilla tools as mines, booby traps and infiltration of their enemy’s stern areas.

 SP In order to minimize civilian casualties, the air force relied more on over a thousand guided missiles (Hellfires and TOWs) fired from helicopters.
Israel only has 46 AH-64s, but several hundred F-16s that can drop smart bombs. So any operations in southern Lebanon would involve lots more smart bombs. Moreover, Gaza is much more densely populated than southern Lebanon, making it safer to use smart bombs.

 Three levels
The three classical levels of war strategic, operational and tactical still exist in 4th GW.

 Colonel John Boyd' s definition of grand strategy, the highest level of war; as the art of connecting yourself to as many other independent power centers (i.e. COG) as possible while isolating your enemies from theirs. A 4th GW conflict will usually have many different COG not only at strategic levels but tactical levels too. The game of connection and isolation will be central to tactics and operational art as well as to strategy and grand strategy. It will be important to ensure that what you are doing at the tactical level does not alienate independent COG you need to connect with at the operational or strategic levels present or future.
Because operational art is the art of focusing tactical actions on enemy strategic COG, operational art becomes difficult or even impossible in 4th GW were opponents' strategic COG are intangible. This was the essence of the Soviet failure in Afghanistan. The Soviets focused on operational art, they could not operationalize a conflict where the enemy's strategic COG was God. The Soviets were reduced to fighting at the tactical level only. IMO this operational art is all filibuster crap. I have noted it just to be aware of the definition when others start talking about it. As far as operationalizing God as a COG it’s “separation of Church and State”.

 One important change is that while in the first three generations, strategy was the province of generals, 4th GW gives us the "strategic corporal." Especially when video cameras are rolling, a single enlisted Marine may take an action that has strategic effect. Another change is that all three levels may be local. A unit must harmonize its AOR i.e. local tactical actions with strategic goals i.e. both must be pursued consistently. (When assigning AOR it is important that its boundaries reflect real local boundaries, such as those between tribes and clans, and not be arbitrary lines drawn on a map at some higher headquarters.)

 Colonel Boyd also identified three levels of any conflict; they were the physical, mental and the moral.
Boyd argued the physical is the least powerful, the moral level is the most powerful and the mental level lies between the other two. IMO the physical would include killing people, breaking things, kinetics etc. Moreover, I agree it would be the weakest of all. However with me the mental would include morals i.e. values and motivations, as well as I.Q. over all technological aspects etc. Further more even Lawrence of Arabia’s strategy on guerrilla warfare with its three elements 1) Algebraically 2) Biological 3) Psychological, could also be considered as a sub brake down of the Mental level, even the biological seeing how genetics plays such a row in our thinking. Note keeping in mind my preferred brake down the fallowing notes continue more or less down the lines of Colonel Boyd’s views.

 Also, phase order of effects i.e. first, second or third. IMO first meaning direct effect on those concerned. Second, order a side effects. Third might be historical or traditional.

 A central dilemma of 4th GW: what works for you on the physical (and sometimes mental) level often works against you at the moral level. It is therefore very easy in 4th GW to win all tactical engagements yet lose the war.

 The contradiction between the physical and moral levels is similar to the contradiction between the tactical and strategic levels, but the two are not identical. The physical and moral levels play at the tactical and strategic levels. Any disharmony among levels creates openings which opponents can exploit. Of course, we can also exploit our opponents' disharmonies. For example, lets say one opponent is a religious group. In a town where we have a presence, a local feud results in the killing of a clergyman by members of the same group. In itself, this is a minor tactical event. But if we use information warfare to focus the public's attention on it, pointing out how the tenets of the religion are not being observed by those who claim to speak for it, we might create a “moral bomb.” A physical action would play on the moral level, just as a tactical action would play on a strategic level.

 The basic problem remains the same: all actions, even the smallest, must be considered with great care and from a variety of perspectives lest they have unintended consequences on other (and possibly higher) levels. Note IMO this is a paralyzing quick sand dead end attitude i.e. all the enlisted need to be taught is to “not do on to others as you would not wont done to you”. Using all the above winded theory as an example etc.

 4th GW forces are free of the 1st GW culture of order; they focus outward, prize initiative and they are highly decentralized, rely on self discipline. 4th GW fighters are very good at making themselves untargetable.
Unlike state armed forces, most 4th GW entities cannot simply order their men to fight. Most 4th GW forces are, in effect, militias and throughout history, motivating them to fight has been a major challenge. We must ensure that we do not solve that problem for opponents. We emphasize the strategic level here in part because errors at the strategic level cannot be undone by successes at the tactical level (that is the primary lesson from Germany's defeats in both World Wars), and states often violate this rule in 4th GW.

 In 4th GW less is more. First objective keep "footprint" as small as possible. Important to minimize the contradiction between the physical and moral levels.
The smaller foot print, the fewer negative effects our presence will have at the moral level. This is true not only for us but for the state we are attempting to buttress.

 If the situation is such that Marines' presence must be obvious, that is, we cannot limit it in extent i.e. in situations where Marines do invade.
Another way to minimize our footprint is to limit its duration i.e. conducting expeditions, or raids.

 An easy victory on the battle field brings with it a serious danger. Our victory can easily destroy the enemy state itself, not merely bring about "regime change.” If this happens, it may prove impossible to re create a state. As it is easy to loss by winning. Therefore, we must learn how to preserve enemy states at the same time that we defeat them. The key to preserve its armed forces. Here, the revival of an 18th century practice may be helpful: rendering the opposing armed forces the "honors of war." Instead of humiliating them, destroying them physically or, after our victory, disbanding them, we should do them no more damage than the situation requires. Prisoners should be treated with respect. If they are senior officers, they should be treated as "honored guests," invited to dine with our generals, given the best available quarters etc. we should praise how well they fought, give them respect in public. Throughout the conflict, all our actions should be guided by the goal of enabling and encouraging the armed forces we are fighting to work with us. The same is true for civil servants of the enemy state. It is critical that the state bureaucracy continue to function. We must be careful not to leave any segments of the enemy's society unrepresented in a new government. And, that government should be headed by local figures, not by someone from another country.

 If all else fails, occupations should be by joint forces.
This is the least desirable option, because as foreign occupiers, we are at a severe disadvantage at the moral/legitimacy level.

 “Joint” no longer means Army-Navy-Air Force and Marine Corp cooperation. Joint full spectrum goals for a region, area and community and they have sub goals by region and time leading to the overall goal. Marines must work hand-in-hand with organizations such as State Department, Aid organizations, NGOs etc. At the most powerful level of war, the moral level, the key to victory is to convince the local people to identify with us, or at least to acquiesce to us, rather than identifying with our enemies. Because we are foreign invaders representing a different culture (and sometimes a different religion), this is a difficult challenge.

 Meeting this challenge will depend to a significant degree not on what we do, but on what we do not do. We cannot insult and brutalize the local population and simultaneously convince them to identify with us. We cannot represent a threat to their historic culture, religion or way of life. We cannot come across as Goliath, because no one identifies with Goliath. Nor do people identify with Paris, the Trojan champion in the Iliad, who fought from a distance (he was an archer) and was therefore a coward. This does not mean we should be weak, or project an image of weakness. That is also fatal, because in most other cultures, men do not identify with the weak. History is seldom determined by majorities. It is determined by minorities who are willing to fight.

 In most 4th GW situations, the critical “constituency” we must convince to identify with or acquiesce to us is young men and women of fighting age. To them, we must appear to be strong without offering a challenge to fight that honor requires them to accept. They may identify with an outsider who is strong. They will fight any outsider who humiliates them. In terms of ordinary, day-to-day actions, there is a Golden Rule for winning at the moral level, and it is this: Don’t do on to others as you would not won’t done to you. This Golden Rule has a corollary: when you make a mistake and hurt or kill someone you shouldn’t or damage or destroy something you shouldn’t – and you will – apologize and pay up, fast. Repair and rebuild, quickly, if you can, but never promise to repair or rebuild and then not follow through. This brings us to the bottom line for winning at the moral level: your words and your actions must be consistent.

 Another dilemma of 4th GW: What succeeds on the tactical level can easily be counter productive at the strategic level. Example, using overwhelming firepower at the tactical level, Marines may intimidate the local population into fearing and leaving them alone. But fear and hate are closely related, and hating us works toward our strategic defeat.
In 4th GW, the weak often have more power than the strong. One of the first to employ the power of weakness was Mahatma Gandhi. His insistence on non-violent tactics. Once the British responded to Indian independence gatherings and rallies with violence, they immediately lost the moral war. In most situations, our best hope of winning lies not in escalation but in de-escalation. Marines are taught to escalate. Cops don’t do that, because it enrages the community. With the David and Goliath story, most root for David. "One of our first rules is proportionality. A disproportionate response makes us look like cowards."

 We must understand that, despite/in spite of, our vast tactical and technical superiority, at the strategic level we are weaker. The reason is simple: at some point we will go home, while our opponents will remain. That fact overwhelms all others, every local ask himself, “What will my situation be when the Marines leave?” If we fracture the local society to the point where order is unlikely after we depart, anyone who has worked with us will then be in danger.
Our strategic objectives must be realistic. Seldom if ever will we be able to re make other societies and cultures. Nor can we make ourselves loved by countries we invade; keeping them from hating us so much that they want to fight us will often be the best we can do. In insurgencies, "51% solutions" are acceptable. Remember, 4th GW is easy to lose and very challenging to win. In most 4th GW, state armed forces end up defeating themselves.

 Accuracy of the Observation and Orientation is more important than speed. As in 3rd GW the tactical level in 4th GW conflicts is reconnaissance driven, not intelligence driven; the information Marines need will almost always come from below, not from higher headquarters.

 No Fort Apaches. We'll live in the towns. We will billet with the people, paying them well for the quarters we occupy. We'll shop in the local markets, drink coffee in the local cafes. We protect the shopkeepers, but they also protect us. They don't want their shops blown up. Let captains, lieutenants and sergeants work their areas the way they see fit, blending in as much as possible.
“With that kind of dispersion, requires trust in command, not control. I give my subordinates mission orders. They know the result I want. Works like German operational philosophy based upon a common outlook and freedom-of-action, and realized through their concepts of mission and schwerpunkt, emphasized implicit over explicit communication.
Which suggests
The secret of the German Command and Control System lies in what’s unstated or not communicated to one another in order to exploit lower-level initiative yet realize higher-level intent, thereby diminish friction and reduce time, hence gain both quickness and security.
Result
The Germans were able to repeatedly operate inside their adversary’s observation-orientation-decision-action loops.

 Least we forget; in general, techniques have no place in a doctrinal manual because techniques should never be doctrine. Defining techniques as doctrine is a mark of a Second Generation military. In the Third and Fourth Generations, techniques are entirely at the discretion of whoever, regardless of rank, has to get a result. He is responsible only for getting the result, never for employing a set method. That is doctrine! 3rd GW militaries also recognize that any technique usually has a short "shelf life" in combat. As soon as the enemy comes to expect it, he turns it against you. This, in turn, means that the ability to invent new techniques is highly important. Units that develop a successful new technique should communicate their discovery laterally to other Marine units. 4th GW makes this all the more important, because 4th GW opponents will often use techniques very different from our own. Their "way of war" will reflect their culture, not ours.

 "chivalric code" that sets rules both sides will follow. Some (not all) entities have self images that make honor, generosity, and lineage tracing to "knightly" forebears important to them. Just as chivalry was important before the state, it may again become important after the state. Where these attributes are present, it may be to our advantage (especially on the moral level) to propose a "chivalric code." The specifics of such a code would vary place to place. Regardless of the specifics, such codes will generally work to our advantage. They will diminish our "Goliath" image, demonstrate that we respect the local people and their culture, and generally help de-escalate the conflict. They will also assist in improving public order, which in turn helps in preserving or re creating a local state. IMO one problem with allowing people to be who they are is Religion is easy and people travel the path of least resistance, so the “Book Thumpers” will take over.
Disadvantages such codes may bring to us at the physical level will generally be more than compensated by advantages at the mental and moral levels.

 "From day one, our message to the people was, 'We're not here to take over. You are in charge. You tell us what to do that will help you.' We helped them bring in NGOs to set up clinics and distribute food. We put our troops to work with local engineers and technicians to improve the infrastructure. “What we needed weren’t grunts. We need plumbers, carpenters, electricians, masons and construction material. Engineers, doctors, city planners, lawyers or professionals. The skills of each Marine should be identified at the battalion level.
Reservists and National Guardsmen may be better suited to 4th GW situations than many regulars. They are, on average, older and better educated than Active Units. Most are skilled in trades other than warfighting. Police officers and prison guards are often found in Reserve and National Guard units. The police officer who has walked a beat in any major American city has dealt with gang warfare, illicit drug dealing, gun running and other criminal enterprises. 4th GW war does not look much different than the streets of an American ghetto. The level of violence may be more extreme, but many police who serve on SWAT teams in major cities have dealt with more violence in a month than most Marines do in a year.

 On security, we let the mayor and the local police set policy. We captured over 1000 insurgents. We released all locals; we did keep them with us for a while to show them that we treat people with respect and are trying to help. They get to know the Marines, who treat POW as guests. Only if we capture someone a second time or if they are not locals do we forward them to division.
They like us want order too, only they know a lot better than we do how to get it in their society." "We understand that real psyops are not what we say but what we do, and God help us if the two are different. The people well understand that we are not there to change the way they live, or to make them live by our rules. Put up signs in all our buildings, in Arabic and in English that say, 'When in Afghanistan, do as the Afghans do.' We go out of our way to make it clear that we do not see our way of life as superior to theirs. We are not somehow 'better' than they are. In cultures like this one, honor and pride are very important. If we seem to lord it over them, they have to fight us because their honor demands it."

 American-style “Force Protection” is highly disadvantageous, because it seeks security by isolating marines from the surrounding population. Effectiveness demands the opposite: integration with the local populace. The reason is that just as Marines protect the local people, so the local people will protect them. Perhaps the best example of this symbiotic protection is the traditional British “bobby.” The bobby was, until recently, unarmed. The reason he did not need a weapon was that just as he protected the neighborhood, the neighborhood protected him. The bobby had a regular beat, which he patrolled on foot. He came to know every house and its inhabitants, and they came to know him. Just as his familiarity with his beat enabled him to see very quickly if anything was out of the ordinary, so the fact that the local people knew him as an individual meant they told him what he needed to know. Marines will not be able to go about unarmed in most situations. By buying bread, fruit or construction materials locally, Marines’ presence also contributes to the local economy. To be effective, they must reside in the same neighborhood or village for some time. Results usually come slowly. In Vietnam Marines had the CAP program i.e. integration with the local population. Highly effective By all accounts. Again, Marine commanders should attempt to learn from such past successes as the CAP program and not have to “reinvent the wheel” in each new conflict.

 Develop a mental "switch." When the switch is set for combat with state armed forces, Marines must want to fight. When instead it is set for 4th GW situations, Marines must be equally keen not to fight. The second involves risks, as does the first. But the second is just as important as the first, because not wanting to fight is as important to victory in 4th GW as wanting to fight is in the 3rd. The key, as elsewhere, is the Marines' well known self discipline.

 One part of "not wanting to fight" may require taking more casualties than you inflict. It is more important not to kill the wrong people than it is to kill armed opponents. Anytime an innocent person is wounded or killed, his family and clan members are likely to be required by the local culture to take revenge. This means when Marines are under fire, they must discipline themselves to return fire only when they are certain they are firing on armed enemies. If Marines are fired on in a situation where it is not clear who is firing and the Marines are intermixed with the civilian population, the best solution may be to withdraw. We need not “win” every firefight by leaving behind a pile of dead local people. Finally, despite a policy of de-escalation, there will be some situations where Marines do need to escalate. When that happens, we again stress that it must be over fast. Once the escalation terminates, Marines must make every effort to demonstrate that de-escalation remains Marine Corps policy.

 Graffiti in Iraq "Now the real war starts." American tanks had ripped up some roads, crushed sewers and water pipes and even knocked down a few buildings.
Don’t go in with M-1s and Bradleys. Just HMMWVs and trucks. Ditch the helmets, armor and sunglasses. They make you look like Robocop. US troops in their helmets, armor and sunglasses, they looked like jinn, not men.

 We treat their wounded just like our own. We sent them on helos to US run hospitals, not the crummy local ones. We transported their families to the hospitals to see them, and when they were well enough we took them back to their homes. We also gave money to the families that had lost wage earners." "Moslems bury their dead immediately, and I and my men went to all the funerals. Then I had memorial services for my two KIA and invited the townspeople. Many came, including three imams who offered prayers. That had a huge impact locally. I then asked the imams if they and their colleagues would give classes on Islam to me and my troops. "Sir, my other two wounded happened like this”. A couple kids with AK 47s jumped a patrols. They couldn’t really shoot, it was just pray and spray. Despite two men down, my guys did not shoot the kids. My patrol leader charged them and they dropped their weapons and ran. When he caught them, he brought them back to the ambush site, pulled their pants down and spanked them. The crowd loved it, and the kids were humiliated in front of their buddies instead of being heroes. Both of my guys have since returned to duty and the kids' parents have apologized to us.

 If we have to take out an evil doer, the preferred option is to take out a contract on them. Locals do the dirty work, (American fingerprints.) There may be situations where escalation on the tactical level is necessary to obtain de-escalation on the operational and strategic levels i.e. if there is an insurgent cell that is too tough for locals to handle, we send in our Nighthunters, our equivalent to Delta Force. They specialize in being invisible. Local citizens never see them or deal with them. That enables us to keep the locals from seeing the average American as a threat. We try not to kill, make use of CS gas etc. if we do kill someone we pay blood money to his tribe.
"Of course, there are situations where we do want bloodshed. We constantly try to identify factional divisions among the insurgents. When we find one, we try to escalate it, to ramp up friction within the other side. We use (whispering campaigns) i.e. lies and deceptions to sway one faction to whack another, then we find discreet ways to help them do that. We do it in such a way that they all start blaming each other. Often, the insurgents do our most difficult jobs for us, killing their own leaders out of fear of being stabbed in the back. Also known as the "Mafia Model." How would the mafia do an occupation? One key to a mafia’s success is the concealed use of force as well as money as weapons. If an individual needs to be “whacked,” then it is usually done with little fanfare and in the shadows. The rule is, “No fingerprints.” Unless there is a specific message to be sent out to a larger audience, people who are killed by the Mafia are almost never found. This usually requires patience. It often takes a long time for the right situation to present itself. If there is a message to be made to a larger audience, then a public display of violence is used. But this is usually avoided, as it can backfire against the aims and goals of the organization due to public opinion. The mafia also operates on the principle that “everybody gets his cut.” If you are willing to work with the mafia, you get part of the profits. The rewards should grow as the “business” expands, that is, as Marines get closer to achieving their objectives. This is also important for leaving a stable situation behind.
What artillery and air power are in 3rd GW, cash is in the 4th GW: you’re most useful supporting arm. Local Marine commanders must have a bottomless “slush fund” of cash to use at their discretion. Obviously, this cash cannot be subject to normal accounting procedures; most will, necessarily and properly, be used for bribes. Just as a commander needs to have a plan for how to use artillery and air power, he will now need a plan for employing his cash. If our most important supporting arm is cash, we cannot just throw it around.

 That is why in Northern Ireland, British troops are not allowed to return fire unless they are actually taking casualties. The Israeli military historian Martin van Creveld argues that one reason the British have not lost in Northern Ireland is that they have taken more casualties than they have inflicted.

 Clausewitz, writing on war between states, said that "War is the extension of politics by other means." In 4th GW, the opposite is more likely to be true: politics can be a useful extension of war, one that gives us power but also is consistent with de-escalation. Nowhere more than in a post-state situations is the old saying "All politics is local" truer. When the state vanishes, everything becomes local. By understanding and leveraging local political balances, we may be able to attain many objectives without fighting.
A useful model here is the old British Northwest Frontier Agent. The Northwest Frontier was the lawless tribal area between British India and Afghanistan. In this area, the British government was represented by Frontier Agents. These were Englishmen, but they were also men who had lived in the area for a long time and knew the local players and politics well. Their actual power was small some cash and usually a company of Sepoys, Indian troops. But that small power was often enough to tilt the local political and military balance for or against a local chieftain. The local leaders were aware of this, and they usually found it worth their while to maintain good relations with the British so as to keep them on their side, or at least not actively intervening against them. Here again, the key is good local intelligence, especially political intelligence. By integrating with the local population, Marines can learn what the local political divisions and alignments are so that they can play on them. Just as with the Northwest Frontier Agents, Marines can leverage relationships to achieve their ends while avoiding fighting.
Note see also Def. Rule # 7 note 4th GW.


Pro guerrilla / insurgency operations

Trans-national guerillas referred to as the great equalizer. Guerrilla warfare is for the morally strong and materially weak.

It is far more intellectual than a bayonet charge. Expansion phase volunteers trained as agitators (to stir up) and propagandists are sent out to enlist popular support. A process that is clandestine, methodical and progressive. May last for years. Disassociates the population with government. They outline shared goals for guerrillas and population. The nation’s character/population must be favorable to the measures, motivations and cause. In early phases struggle must be purely defensive the guerrilla/volunteer most concentrate on his district. The threats of war most embrace a considerable extent of the nation. The war must first be carried out in the heart of the nation’s cities. The nation most be of broken and difficult nature, mountains, forest, marsh or dessert. Not easy for regulars to cut off support. Large areas of land between guerrillas and regulars laid waste by flood or fire (marsh or desert) so regulars will have to cross it. If regulars persist on staying there he will suffer in waist land. Ex; Anbar province in Iraq. Guerrillas should be concerned with the entire area that separates regulars from there bases. The war can not be decided by a single catastrophe. Vanity, the guerrilla who suffers from this is blinded by successes he winds up organizing action that he considers decisive and commits all resources. Stretching forces and influences to thin. Precipitous actions, leader loses patients suffers an attack of nerves. Dose not wait for everything to come together i.e. tries to solve problems by forcing actions. Prolonged operations are to be avoided hence preferred tactics to strategies. This means on a cell level not fighting to long for one thing. Be opportunist, attack everything and defend nothing. To gain terrain is no cause for joy, to lose it no cause for sorrow. Using death and destruction to spread panic far beyond points of physical impact. Targets are carefully picked to transmit psychological messages that shape public opinions and behavior. Design attack to take place where it will not bring with it an obvious or clear cut choice of response (Guerrillas often drive into town fire rockets thin leave). Targeting variety of victims at random times and places reduces the value of early warning. Novelty and surprises throw an enemy into consternation (dismay and confusion), but common incidents have a diminishing effect. The aim is to make security appear impotent and concessions seem preferable to chaos. Organization; cellular structure is used at village and district level. Province or regional structure might be more like traditional government. Run companies for arms and equipment manufacturing. Stirring committee cells similar to Apache war parties, assume many sizes they generally start with a multi purpose nucleus, leadership or Command element/cell, Combat or Assault element/cell and Support or Logistics element/cell. Cells seldom exceed 10 members. Some stagnate others under the supervision of highly skilled handlers mature as multi faceted syndicates with numerous off shoots. Movement grows by adding cells instead of expanding elements. Keeping cells small helps to simplify internal control and prevent compromise (compromise is exposure of covert operations, plans or members). Intermediaries aka cutouts normally separate chiefs from Indians and cells from each other. So that captured members furnish few leads. During any interactions/contact i.e. meetings, ideally all cutouts conceal there true I.D. At worst the cutout knows his or her one contact. Blind drop covert delivery of message with out contact between cutouts i.e. hiding messages under rocks etc. Compartmentalization/cell system based on need to know bases. Cells subdivide support tasks and perform them step by step in series. One element/cell might make purchases, than a second manufactures components, third completes assembly and fourth distributes. Fifth uses product. Publish papers in same way.


Anti guerrilla / insurgence operations

Regulars in small wars must frequently adopt retrograde movements but these must be very deliberate as they always encourage the guerrilla. Squares and other defensive works are far more important then in regular warfare. Professional police work helps but informants are scares. Attempts to penetrate small hyperaware cells is a time consuming perilous occupation. Pay offs are limited unless plants are in C4I. Intimate relationships with local populations are to be avoided due to spies. Must not show favoritism to anyone either. Lawrence of Arabia’s strategy had three elements 1) Algebraically 2) Biological 3) Psychological. Over all goals, persuades population to cooperate with government. Militarily anti guerilla operations seldom succeed, unless a direct offensive roots out the infrastructure, separates local underground i.e. black market and the like from guerrillas and stops outside assistance. Kill the head, hearts and minds fallow, the separation of fish (Guerrillas) from the supporting sea (the people). As Mao once put it, mass deprivation of the agrarian infrastructure. Because the ability to furnish or deny food provides a useful lever.

Regimes which permit freedom of oral and written expression keep finger on the pulse of public. By allowing disgruntled citizens to air grievances, try to manage rather than resist change. Rally loyal factions leaving malcontents/Guerrillas with out support.

Two approaches to the press; defensive or offensive. In defensive, the objective is to minimize bad press by controlling the flow of news. This was typical of how militaries approached the press in 2nd and 3rd GW. The offensive approach seeks to use the press more than to control it, though some control measures may still be in place. Media is important at the mental i.e. moral level. In turn, the key to an offensive press strategy is openness. Few members of the press or media such as the internet will allow themselves to be so controlled as to present only the good news about Marines’ activities. Unless Marines are open about mistakes and failures, the press will devote most of their effort to ferreting them out. Worse, Marines will lack credibility when they have real good news to present. Paradoxically, openness is the key to controlling negative information when necessary. Sometimes, openness builds such a cooperative relationship with the media that they become part of your team and don’t want to report something that will really hurt you. At other times, you can expend the credibility you have built through a general policy of openness to deceive when deception is absolutely necessary. Just remember that when you do so, you may be using your only silver bullet. IMO the US mastered these techniques long ago i.e. the so called news is propaganda. And let’s not forget the Governments use of spokes/spooks persons. No freedom of speech in the ranks.

Promote understanding and contacts between artist, clergy, elites, journalists, labor leaders, military, political, teachers and students, with academic and cultural exchanges. Such as lectures, seminars, symposia, student exchange programs. The best way to deal with guerrillas is to preempt them through economical development and social reform. EX; Iraqi local tribes paid to protect pipelines. Clans providing security for convoys going through FATA.

Deterrence that eliminates causes instead of symptoms is particularly illusive. Political economic and social reforms which deflate genuine grievances help eradicate guerrillas by convincing a populist majority that government programs are preferred to the guerrilla’s promises. Reforms that reapportion influence and provide equal opportunity for all may alleviate or eliminate guerrilla causes. If policy makers take appropriate steps early enough and avoid replacing one set of problems with others. Those techniques AKA winning hearts and minds however are less beneficial as a counter insurgency tool i.e. meaning Guerrillas are a foreign movement. Or if guerrillas are opposing a long time despised government. Negotiated compromise in such cases is possible but improbable. Rhetoric by officials increases guerrilla prestige government must match words with will and means. Negotiated compromise that offers some satisfaction to guerrillas customarily is an ultimatum, although guerrillas may approve of the process since it publicizes there purpose and divest them with status equal to beleaguered government. They will then share blame if blood shed continues. Consequently to not invite them relinquishes privilege and shared blame. Guerrilla motivations normally are to prevent open promises. Normally accept few rewards short of total success and publicized victory.


U.S. foreign policy equals Christian beliefs “we not only have the right but the obligation to spread our ways. Foreigners don’t know the benefits we have been blest with.” U.S. government’s cover i.e. message or revealed truth, to the public “we're going to help rescue these people”. IMO when politics is spun too much, population turns to religion so government must too. U.S. also anti communist vs. economical interest. Even if the opposition leader is not communist, what if leader is over thrown by someone who is. Not like U.K. or France, flat out up front explanation that it’s in our nation’s economic or security interest. Lessens learned by other nations witnessing U.S. supported coups. The CIA will use all means available to wreak target government. Universities, science, media, industry, trade, religion. Allies are reluctant to work with U.S. agents do to tight restrictions, also legal limitations and U.S. leaks that compromise their sources magnify difficulties. Tactical deterrence dilemmas. Israel’s swift and sure punishment vs. British approach which has kept better faith with humane principles and tactics. Threats can be constituted by phone call, visit to nation by guerrilla members or drop in/walk in informant.

"Hama model." Refers to what Syrian did when the Moslem Brotherhood, rebelled in 1982. On February 2, 1982, the Syrian Army was deployed into the area surrounding Hama. Within three weeks, the Syrian Army had completely devastated the city of Hama, resulting in the deaths of between 10,000 and 25,000 people. The use of heavy artillery, armored forces and possibly poison gas resulted in large-scale destruction and an end to the Moslem Brotherhood’s desires to overthrow the Baath Party. After the operation was finished, one surviving citizen of Hama stated, “We don’t do politics here anymore, we just do religion.” The results of the destruction of Hama were clear to the survivors. As the June 20, 2000 Christian Science Monitor wrote, “Syria has been vilified in the West for the atrocities at Hama. But many Syrians, including a Sunni merchant class that has thrived under Alawite rule, also note that the result has been years of stability.” What distinguishes the Hama model is overwhelming firepower and force, deliberately used to create massive casualties and destruction, in an action that is over fast. Speed is of the essence to the Hama model. The objective is to get it over with so fast that the effect desired locally is achieved before anyone else has time to react or, ideally, even to notice what is going on. If a Hama type operation is allowed to drag out, it will turn into a disaster on the moral level. It might become an option if a WMD were used against us on our own soil. The main reason we need to identify the Hama model is to note a serious danger i.e. it is easy, but fatal, to choose a course that lies between the Hama model and the de-escalation model. Such a course inevitably results in defeat, because of the power of weakness. Historian Martin van Creveld compares a state military that, with its vast superiority in lethality, continually turns its firepower on poorly equipped opponents to an adult who administers a prolonged, violent beating to a child in a public place. Regardless of how bad the child has been, every observer sympathizes with the child. That is why the rule for the Hama model is that the violence must be over fast. Any attempt at a compromise between the two models results in prolonged violence that is fatal.

MCA June 2009; Accept counterinsurgency as a political activity. An insurgency has political goals. Violence is but one element of power an insurgent movement asserts to achieve its objectives. As conditions change and counterinsurgents gain and maintain security, one can expect that political goals of insurgent movements will remain, though the strategies and tactics to achieve those goals will change. Oftentimes enemy efforts to achieve objectives will take place in the legitimate realm of local, provincial, and national politics. Thus, it is critical that companies learn and track the political situation in their battlespace as best as possible. Learn the political environment and attempt to understand agendas and alliances. How do changes in local political power influence the local security environment, and how will various insurgents take advantage of new opportunities? Some answers will come from the multiple engagements companies will have with the population and local leaders. Each conversation can be a piece to the political puzzle leading to indications and warnings of violence due to political change. The CLIC will need to assist the commander in compiling engagement reports and help put the pieces of the political puzzle together for the company’s battlespace.

Weighting the main effort. Each company assigned battlespace within the battalion’s area of operations will be confronted with unique human terrain that may or may not interrelate with adjacent villages and tribal areas. Assuming the battalion assigns battlespace to all four of its maneuver companies, an intelligence section without CLICs would be faced with collecting and analyzing information for four distinct and disparate areas. This is a tall order even for a regimental S–2 section, let alone that of a battalion. Consequently, the battalion commander must identify a main effort to ensure that the battalion intelligence section is focusing its limited resources on those areas that require the most attention to achieve the battalion commander’s objectives. For the companies that are not the main effort, the necessity for a top quality CLIC will become critical. With the bulk of the battalion intelligence resources focused elsewhere, CLICs will need to provide their company commander with the information management of collection efforts and limited analysis to maintain an understanding of the battlespace.

The CLIC team and the commander. The experiences of most infantry battalions reveal one well-known truism: the effort the company commander places on company-level intelligence is correlated/connected to the amount of actionable intelligence the company produces i.e. little attention to intelligence collection; the company will have little effect on the battlespace. Ultimately, the CLIC the commander builds is a direct reflection of the value he places on understanding and influencing his battlespace.

If a battalion is operating in a distributed environment, the companies will never be satisfied with the level of battalion level intelligence support. Only the company commander and his CLIC will focus their full efforts within the area of operations that is most critical to the company’s success. One of the most influential decisions a company commander makes is the selection of the CLIC Marines. As the CLIC is sourced “out of hide,” some commanders may want to shortchange the quality of personnel. This choice may be “pennywise but pound foolish” and result in a “what did these guys do for me” reflection later. Commanders must be willing to cut into muscle a stronger and more competent CLIC will result in a greater gain for the company than the cumulative loss felt by the squads. The counterinsurgent theorist, David Kilcullen, articulated this best, “Put the smartest soldiers in the [CLIC]. You will have one less rifle squad: but the [CLIC] will pay for itself in lives and effort saved. Who, then, are the right Marines? Successful CLICs possess attributes that include analytical ability, prior operational deployment, language training, and computer skills. Curiosity, “street smarts,” and effective written and oral communication.

A guerrilla war is not a war of technology versus peasantry. Rather, it is a contest of endurance and national will. The side with the greatest moral commitment (ideological, religious or patriotic) will hold the ground at the end of the conflict. Battlefield victory can be almost irrelevant, since victory is often determined by morale, obstinacy and survival. Lessons learned from this conflict were gathered by both sides. Whatever else these lessons may show, the most fundamental of them is that no army, however sophisticated, well trained, materially rich, numerically overwhelming and ruthless, can succeed on the battlefield if it is not psychologically fit and motivated for the fight. The force, however destitute in material advantages and numbers, which can rely on the moral qualities of a strong faith, stubborn determination, individualism and unending patience will always be the winner. These may not be the optimum qualities always found in the armies of western democracies.


The Soviet concept for military occupation of Afghanistan was based on the following:
Stabilizing the country by garrisoning the main routes, major cities, airbases and logistics
Sites; relieving the Afghan government forces of garrison duties and pushing them into the
Countryside to battle the resistance; providing logistic, air, artillery and intelligence support to the Afghan forces; providing minimum interface between the Soviet occupation forces and the local Populace; Accepting minimal Soviet casualties; and, Strengthening the Afghan forces, so once the resistance was defeated, the Soviet Army could be withdrawn.

It proved a bloody experience in which the Soviet Union reportedly killed 1.3 million people and forced five and a half million Afghans (a third of the prewar population) to leave the country as refugees. Another two million Afghans were forced to migrate within the country. The countryside is ravaged and littered with mines.


Battalion and regimental‐level combat was fought primarily in the mountains against separate detachments of mujahideen [insurgents]. The war was fought under conditions where the enemy lacked any aviation capabilities, but had modern air defense systems and modern mines. A lack of front lines and advances along varied axes (which were not mutually supporting) characterized the decisive actions of the opposing sides as they attempted to seize the initiative and gain control over certain territories.
The Soviet forces encountered several unique combat characteristics which necessitated that they adopt more effective methods for combating guerrilla forces of mujahideen. The principal types of combat included: raids; blocking off areas where the enemy was located prior to searching out and destroying guerrilla forces; and the simultaneous attack on several groups of the enemy located at various depths and locations. The specific combat conditions influenced the way in which the advance through mountains and inhabited areas was conducted; led to a change in air assault tactics; changed the methods of conducting marches and providing convoy security; and caused a change in the tactics of organizing and conducting ambushes. One of the fundamental methods for fulfilling combat missions was to block off a region in which guerrilla forces were located and then to thoroughly comb the region to find and destroy the mujahideen. Coordination between the blocking and combing forces, their bronegruppa, artillery and aviation; the application of military cunning and the application of reasoned initiatives; However, firepower is not an absolute substitute for maneuver and close combat. The Soviets chose to expend massive firepower in order to save Soviet lives and to compensate for their lack of infantry. It was an expensive, indiscriminate and, probably, ineffective practice. The Soviet Army does not push on despite heavy casualties. They transition to the defense after moderate casualties and call for fire support.

The Soviets adopted bounding overwatch in this vignette and apparently throughout the Afghanistan War. Bounding overwatch was not in the European battle book since it slowed down movement tempo. However, bounding overwatch is essential when moving over rough terrain or when your enemy is not totally occupied with your artillery and air strikes.

The decentralized nature of the resistance, factionalism and lack of unified command were both a Mujahideen strength and weakness.
First of all Mujahideen groups generally operated on their home turf. Acting outside their home turf could have unfavorable political and support ramifications. Secondly, the Mujahideen wanted to harass their enemy as close to the capital as possible for political and propaganda reasons. Attacks at the gates of Kabul were more significant than attacks further out.
Mujahideen and their weapons. The DRA had traveling propaganda/civil affairs teams which provided entertainment, medical treatment and pro‐regime propaganda throughout Afghanistan.

The Mujahideen conducted ambushes for harassment or for spoils. Often, harassing ambushes were small‐scale ambushes which would only fire a few rounds into the convoy to destroy or damage some vehicles. Then the ambushers would withdraw without attempting to loot the column before the convoy commander could react. Ambushes conducted for spoils (weapons, ammunition, food, clothing and other military supplies) were normally conducted by larger forces who could maintain their positions for up to an hour.

The Mujahideen understood that guerrilla war is a contest of endurance and national will. Battlefield victory is almost irrelevant, provided that the guerrilla survives to fight the next of a thousand battles before passing the torch to his children. The Mujahideen did not necessarily expect to win this war but fought because it was the right thing to do – it was a religious and national obligation. They accepted an asymmetry of casualties which eventually,
but unexpectedly, led to the Soviet withdrawal. In many respects, the tactics of the Anglo‐afghan Wars (1839, 1852, 1878‐1880, 1919) still applied. Technology has added range and accuracy, but the terrain still dictates tactics and
the Mujahideen were quite comfortable applying their time‐honored tactics against a modern foe.

Tactical innovation occurs only where tactical innovation is required and the Mujahideen eventually found ways to work around the problem technology. Where innovation was not required, the Mujahideen stayed with the tried and true. Thus the basic Mujahideen ambush and pursuit were little changed from last century whereas their actions against an air assault or a fortified security post were quickly developed out of necessity.

Technology can provide advantages but it is not decisive in this type of war. Soviet smart bombs had a decided impact when an appropriate target set could be identified. U.S. supplied, shoulder fired Stinger air defense missiles, in the hands of the Mujahideen, created a great deal of consternation and led to a dramatic change in Soviet air tactics. Neither system, however, was a war winner. The Soviet equipment was designed for a different war on different terrain. It failed to function optimally in the mountains and deserts of Afghanistan. The Kalashnikov
assault rifle was not always better than the World War I designed British bolt action Enfield rifle. The Enfield shot further accurately and would penetrate flak jackets designed to stop Kalashnikov bullets.

Mujahedeen Strengths:
Familiarity with the terrain
Tactical mobility
Ability to achieve surprise i.e. blind in with locals.
Ability to operate at night
Rugged and highly motivated fighters
Sanctuaries in Pakistan and Iran.


Stopped on page 19


STEP # 4
Rehearsal: Term ROC drills, Rehearsal of concept. This is going over mission. Walk through, talk through, and then go through everything silently. Leader should ask if anyone has questions, comments or complaints. Remember the groups combined years of experience is greater then yours. If you decide to reject a member’s idea, explain why. This builds trust when time is not available to explain. Your purpose is to analyze alternatives. Assets are evaluated modifications and options are considered. Thus critically analyze foe to know the estimates for gain and loss. Stimulate them to know the patterns of their movements and stoppages. Determine their dispositions of force, probe them to know where they have excess or insufficiency. If it is formless then even the deepest spy cannot discern or the wise make plans against it. EX; Cellular system. Analyses of results (to be completed after action has been taken on decisions). Also review of after action reports from similar operations.


STEP# 5
Implement: Carry out the mission.

update 10/06/12 the below text was meant as a joke i.e. you can go with tri-f or the pdea system. But look how much money they spent. lol.

The Execution (phase “E” of the PDEA cycle) of LI operations follows a sub-cycle that can be divided into four steps: dispersion, orientation, concentration, and action (DOCA). Dispersion provides LI with its main tool, survivability. Orientation comprises the execution of shaping actions to enable the later concentration of the main effort in order to hit the enemy’s center of gravity (COG). This step requires an aggressive use of reconnaissance in order to hit the COG by pulling the main effort through them. The Concentration step allows LI to transform the small combat power of multiple, isolated elements, into one or more powerful thrusts. The Action is led by reconnaissance elements, which drags the main effort and available supporting fires towards the COG. Finally, a new and rapid dispersion ends the sub-cycle, facilitating the breaking of contact and rendering enemy
counteraction ineffective.

end of joke material.


STEP# 6
Supervise: Ensure that you are available for discussion as work progresses. Adequate guidance eliminates wasted effort and time. During inspections and with reports to the commander the staff officer is not a talebearer. Staff officers inform subordinate commanders of their findings, discuss it with them and inform them of the exact nature of the report to be made to the Cmdr. A staff visit has the essential purpose of coordination, teamwork, and mutual understanding between the Cmdr. and his staff also between the staff and subordinate commanders. Such visits may uncover misunderstandings and provide corrections before becoming serious and requiring more time and effort. Just as the oral word maybe misunderstood, the written word is not always clear, however carefully it is prepared.


NO ONE WINS, THIS IS FORGOTTEN. WARS ARE EASY TO START EXPENSIVE TO CONTINUE, DIFFICULT TO STOP. OFTEN BEGIN WHEN SOMEONE FEELS VICTORY IS ASSURED. THE FIGHT CONTINUES LARGELY BECAUSE OF NATIONAL AND PERSONAL PRIDE. WARS END WHEN ONE OR BOTH SIDES ARE DEVASTATED, DEMORALIZED OR RARELY SUDDENLY ENLIGHTEN BY THE ABSURDITY OF IT ALL.


It is the nature of war that what is beneficial to you is detrimental to the enemy and what is of service to them hurts you. Therefore, never do or omit doing anything as a consequence of Foe’s actions. Consult your own interest only, you depart from this interest when ever you imitate such measures as Foe pursues for there benefit.


DEFENSE

Note these rules have been written from the perspective of a unit being on patrol and arriving at an objective that might be a new FOB site.

1) Pass by circle back,

That is as you arrive at objective you fly, drive, walk etc right by. So you can check the situation out, anyone or thing there, entries, exits you plan on using. Gives you chance to spot anyone circling back with you that might have been fallowing. Enemy will wonder any time you pass them if you’re going to circle back. This causes them to hunker down waist time, waiting for your return.

2) Pause before interring,

This is right at entrances. You’re waiting, watching, lessening for sights and sounds of enemy activity. Also makes foe waiting in ambush think you’re suspicious about something, may make them move to soon. With large area or multi story building 10-15 minutes. Small room 20- 30 seconds. History has shown that if any activity is on going, you should hear or see something within the time periods suggested. Just in side subterranean entries 10-15 minutes to check air. With returning to bases i.e. FOBs there may have been a coup while your unit was on patrol. Lastly this gives you time to perform next rule. 
Note, check go TWA U and Me.        

3) Bobby trap entries,

This could be a trail, path, road, river used to inter an area or hole, window, door for rooms or buildings. This is incase your being fallowed or planning on staying in area for a while. Or you can post guard, this covers your back and insures safe exit, if you choose to brake the don’t back track rule (i.e. #10 in PCP). With roads etc. use two deferent colors of flares for trip wires, to indicate direction of foe who set them off. Ex; approach from east would trip yellow flare. Do not divide duties with demolitions: This is to avoid the “I thought you did it” problem. IEDs designed to defeat a specific target, create an attitude of uncertainty and suspicion, in effect lowering morale and inducing a degree of caution that restricts and slows movement. They are unique because the builder has improvised with materials at hand. They generally become more difficult to detect and defuse as builders become more sophisticated. Builder will usually mark area in some way. To keep Comrades (tungzai) from being injured. You can search areas after finding IEDs to learn signs. Direction that wire is twisted can indicate if builder is left or right handed. IEDs share a common set of components 1) An initiation system. Or fuse; use surgical tubing with many tiny holes like yard soaker to limit smoke. Fast fuse Vs slow fuse burning time, 90 Vs 1cm. per second respectively. Always check fuse with test section. Ropes can be used for fuses. (Note most IEDs are victim-initiated/activated). EOD it requires a truly Machiavellian frame of mind. You insert mercury tremblers on door frames and contact switches under toilet seats. Acid time pencils and or plastic straws filled with acid and some sort of stopper/blug that acid would eventually eat though. Time-delay, Rubber strap rapping i.e. banding/binding Grenade spoons, placed in can of petrol bands dissolve. With vehicles heat activated bombs. Voice activated recorders as detonation device. Delay action fuses give you time to leave area. (Remote or command architectures), cordless phone, radio control device similar to the type used to fly model planes. Mobile platform hinders tracing or triangulation. Note blimp or balloon drifting with wind, signal would initiate IED upon and or timed with arrival. It could be a communication transmission (I-COM) in local area that sets off the IED. Note while the previous random ignition methods are possible these techniques IMO are for the armatures the pros make every IED count i.e. not only hitting the vehicle they target but the most venerable point. Trigger devices designed to work as close as 75’. Motion detector mechanism shown being used with IED. Close pen shown on leg of couch IMO with wires to touch when stick pulled from between close pen peaces i.e. out of that round whole. Or maybe it was like one of those bank teller panic buttons. Note on Iraqi Guerrilla; he had a black briefcase with Japanese markings, he flicks a switch on its side. He claims that the device is similar to those used by U.S. troops to block cellular signals around IEDs and disable bombs wired to detonate with a cell phone call. He invites people in the room to try to use their cell phones. None of us can get a signal. I’ve jammed them he says. But his own phone a cheap Nokia shows a full strength signal. “I made a few small changes inside. It took me just one day to figure it out”. He said. Most mid size mines equipment with MAD sensors. Sensitizing antitank (AT) mines. On some nonmetallic AT mines, the pressure plate spring is replaced to reduce the pressure required to initiate the mine. Average Infantry Marine’s weight produces 2-10 lbs per square inch. In snow mines must be more sensitive to pressure since weight is distributed more evenly over snowshoes, skies and sleds. Tripwires placed higher than would normally be the case, Ex; at 46 cm height in case of heavy snow. IFV antenna stud up very high tripwires where placed between tree tops, so antenna would hit and trigger IED. Self positioning pole / trip wire at entrance anti prep fire explosion i.e. the prep explosion causes deployment of the pole attached to the trip wire. Static electricity Can detonate devices. It is prevalent in desert due to atmospheric dryness and especially under windy conditions. Discovery channel, dust storms of the 1930s caused electrical charges from metal objects. Static electricity continues to build as wind and sand make contact with objects. Some charges high enough to knock a man down and out. With helicopters and any time slings or tethers are being used. Magnified by different electrical potential between similar or dissimilar materials. Discharge when objects are brought near each other or contact is made. Tape all sharp edges tip of antennas this reduces wind caused static electricity. Also if flammable gases are present. In winter with snow and ice covering ground i.e. lack of grounding. Marines should always ground themselves. Conduit contact between Marines and soil established or metal circuit or ground cable picket or crow bar between fuel tank/pump and vehicle before and during fueling. Turn off all switches. Disconnect all electrical connections.
Use securing stakes for det cord/blasting caps; this is securing them by rapping cord around stake in ground numerous times to provide excess play. So, if anyone stumbles over it, less chance of being disconnected. In snow mines must be supported, snow can be tamped, frozen by pouring water on it or mine placed on planks, some sort of boards placed under. Cardboard/plastic placed over mine, to protect it from moisture, freezing moving parts. Paint cardboard and or mine white, just in case snow is blown away or melts. Do not use vegetation form immediate area of mine or traps to camouflage them. Use snow mud or grease to cover tip or ends of freshly cut or broken branches. 2) Detonator aka booster. Term train, ignition det and explosion, power supply for detonator. Ex. motor cycle battery. 3) Explosives A typical suicide bomber uses 25 lb (11 kg). (UXO unexploded ordnance) PE4 explosives, artillery rounds, in Iraq most common munitions are 122 mm. A hole is drilled in shipping cap with an electric blasting cap inserted. Tamped or covered explosives increases effectiveness and reduces debris. All explosives may be combined with biological or chemical toxins or radiological material. Corrosive chemicals mentioned as being used in IEDs. Also rust mixed with explosive to increase oxygen thus combustion. An explosive placed in water greatly magnifies shock waves. Note maybe secret behind FAE technology. Glass containers for setting fuel air explosion. Burst/blast slower burning charge makes for larger shock wave in caves. Anti personal mines, some butterfly designed to glide or spiral to ground small as palm, green and tan in color others use parachutes to reduce damage i.e. malfunctions, alt sensor to minimize exposure. Antitank CBU 7 grams of explosives. Self destruction devices 10% failure rate. Robotic IMS mines with own sensors and computer able to sense, track and attack. Track buster 2-5 lbs, Eagles fire ball, old IED. TNT ¼, ½ and 1 LBS blocks. C4 many different size blocks. Shape charges two sizes US army 15lbs M2A3 and 40lbs M3A3, M3A3 most likely used in MOUT, penetrates 5’ reinforced concrete, hole tapers 5ft-2ft. Satchel un-tamped 3 ft concrete wall. Satchel charges two standard types M183 and M37 both come in carry bag. With detonation device and blasting cords each weigh 20 lbs. m183 16 individual 1 ¼ lbs. blocks. Can be used separately too. Charges standard type is a 43lbs cylinder of ammonium nitrate. Do not have shattering effect of block TNT or C4 which is used in deliberate demolition.
4) Container. Three categories of employment techniques: A) Package Pole can be used to place charges when you are under fire or tided to rope and pulled into place. IED hidden in animal corps, or human cadavers. Dumped on the streets and detonated when patrol stops for an inspection. “They know that we want just leave a body to rot in the street. They are counting on us to do the right thing, and then hitting us when we do”. With area check apparent road repairs, near construction material, instances of what appeared to be generators. Newly constructed room, buildings, conduit, poles/pipes any movable or usable object even near litter. Buildings are excellent sites for booby trap warfare. Likely locations are restrictive areas like doorways, windows, hallways, staircases, and avenues of approach that are typically used. Any remaining furniture or household objects will have to be checked. Snipers used to force Marines towards IEDs, hidden in places where the Marines might take cover. B) Vehicles vehicle-borne (VBIEDs), donkey drawn carts, and ambulances. Using multiple vehicles. In such instances, the lead vehicle is used as a decoy or barrier buster. In Vietnam motorcycles were rigged with explosives and abandoned.
C) Suicide bombers. Pros: Martyrs deliberately orchestrate the circumstances around death to further increase expectations of future attacks, suggest no threat can deter. Can also make last minute adjustments, Ex. Martyr allowing himself to be run over, in order to place bomb beneath target person. No escape plan or rescue necessary. Secondary task Ex; information gathering immediately before attack. (Could be recorded by webcam on martyr) Suicide vests with explosives and ball bearing sewn into the interior. Coupling / Daisy chaining linking one mine or explosive device to another, with trip wire or detonating cord. When the first device is detonated, it also detonates the linked explosives. Often used to defeat countermeasures, such as mine rollers. The roller will pass over the initial, non-fused or deeper device and set off the second fused or shallow device. This in turn detonates the passed over device underneath the clearing vehicle or located at road side. When the linked devices are shaped charged, they can have narrow but long, kill zone. Hoax / fake IED linked to real. Boosting. Buried explosives are stacked on top of one another. The one buried deepest from the surface is fused. Fusing or wiring w/metallic material only the deepest ordnance helps reduce detection by metal detectors. A pressure fused AP mine can be placed on the top of an AT mine. Mines 1 ton of mines to cover 100 m of front 3-4 man hrs. Per ton to emplace. 10 man hrs per ton to remove.

Invisible destruction this is destroying enemy’s equipment or kit with out operator’s knowledge until operator intends to use it. This foils your foe’s immediate plans and delays re-supply. Directed at what enemy lacks the most or must bring from a far. Also used to complement other actions, example destroying extinguishers before fire. This is also molding look alike items, all the weathering none of the functions. You might wish to take actual items etc. another example; we do not interrupt weapons smuggling operations. We don't try to capture or destroy those weapons. Instead, one of our Guardsmen knew of some stuff we could spray on their ammunition that they would not readily notice but would cause it to jam in the weapon. We sneak in and spray their ammo stocks, then during firing their weapons don't work. That really undercuts their morale. Arson incendiary devices easy to disguise or hide. Fires are used to drawl crowds. Remember smoke warns for miles. Smoke from burning vegetation lighter, structure darker, and vehicle smoke is black. Leaks vs. burning or blowing up fuel tanks. Boats sank, bridges, disassembled or key parts of structure removed to weaken. Best to destroy bridges close to banks. Wire over high tension cables to short out grids. Taping glass before braking reduces debris and noise. Visine gets the red out and knocks your ass out i.e. when mixed in food drinks etc. 70 mg of pure nicotine the equivalent to three cigarettes will kill with in 24 hours if eaten.
Tips for individuals: Avoid souvenir taking. Keep low profile, avoid publicity. Very the way you dress, ensure dress, conduct and mannerisms do not attract attention. Blend in with crowds, local environment. Travel where local inhabitants go, the old when in Rome. Stay away from civil disturbances or demonstrations. Bombers making scene as if sick or fighting to drawl crowds. Avoid deserted streets. Crossing Street can mean difference between walking by men sipping tea and playing dominos or an attack. Do not go out in big groups, never travel alone. Send only number of Marines needed, not 3 or 4 if 1 or 2 can do task. If walking go to ground feet in direction of blast. When walking up steps, place first foot on second step and then every 3rd step. Let friends know where you are going. Head set used as a counter to cell phone bomb. Avoid giving out personal information over phone. Also lines in stores, schedules, arriving with timed appointments. (Iraqi recruits holding camps, maze walls for lines as interviewed). Blending in with locals in Middle East not shaving at least have a mustache. Other signs of foreigners in the Middle East wrong accent, wearing a seatbelt, reading a book while traveling in car. Residents in neighborhood pointing out strangers.

Vehicle check points.

VCPs are of little use after 20 minutes. Enemy makes use of point men in vehicles equipped with cell phone. Blind stops stopping traffic with concealed, ride along Marines. Helicopter in Marines, finish troops conduct search of fallowing and passing vehicles. Block or search those trying to turn around. Motorcycles watch passengers for attack or assisting driver with duties. Marines should be equipped with pistols. US using green dazzler lasers to blind occupants of vehicles. VCP phases, first exterior, snipers or spotters with optical aids to scan vehicles while they wait in lines. Second approach to vehicle look underneath, engine most likely location of devises, interior, strong smells of deodorants might be concealing odors of explosives. Signs of V/C in Vietnam at check points; a man with a shipping license from a local to far away. A women with to heavy of a load for her single sampan or distance she is traveling. All passengers are made to exit. Keep driver with you. Question driver, about location of the spare tire, if driver dose not know answer, this may indicate it’s not his car. Occupants of vehicle questioned about friends, relatives, and business in area of stop. All doors, hood, trunk, opened. All packages removed opened and searched. Driving around with AK- 47 is illegal in Iraq. Note: with Airport security. Do not lock you checked luggage, use cable or zip ties. Do not pack film in checked luggage it can be damaged. No food or drinks in checked luggage. Wrap gifts at destination. Put personal items tooth brushes etc. in clear plastic so screeners won’t have to touch. Place foot wear at top of contents of checked. With unchecked Do not stack books spread them out.  Put scissors, pocket knifes, sharp items in unchecked. Note: Some of the fallowing rules apply to rooms too. Began at engine, checking near power sources, become familiar with vehicle parts especially engine and under side, to make it easier to spot irregularities. Watch for disturbed dust, grease smudges or recently cleaned areas. Check for scratches tool marks on or near windows door jams, trunks or hood release. Watch for extra wires running from lights, horns. Check cut or broken wires before reconnecting or restoring power and flipping switches. Do not cut wires do to tension release sit ups. (This is when spring has been used to pull pens etc. in opposite direction when wire is cut). View inside from out side before interring or opening. Ex; with vehicles tail lights removed to view inside of trunk. Also holes can be drilled. Work from lowest level up. Bombs are often placed on floor so shrapnel rips through vital arteries in legs, and organs in lower abdominal area. Test doors or items for heat or high temperatures using the back of your hand, use a zig-zag pattern. Check front and back seats. Check glove compartments feel set backs, door panels, headliners spare tire compartment. Watch for false partitions in gas tanks and other reservoirs. Probe with wire, push rods through grain cargo. Tail pipes, fuel doors on same side. License plate numbers in some nations indicate the cars make, model, color. If you are aware might tip you off to a stolen vehicle. With approaches to your own vehicle. Check for items under tires in path you will take. Make sure all still locked secure. Do not adjust seats or mirrors with out checking to see if they have been moved. Note positions marked. Car finders that honk horns, flash lights also remote starters, foil initiation mechanisms, by producing electrical current before ignition switch turned. Windows rolled down; hatches cracked with the latch pin in place, reduces air pressure i.e. permits dispersion of the percussion effects minimizing damage. Other precautions to take, sandbagging vehicle floors using fine grain materials, large particles become missiles. Riding on top of armored vehicles when the tactical situation permits. Keep arms and legs inside vehicle. Time of attacks in Iraq, 2100-0300 hrs. Center and stern of patrols attack most. Vehicles traveling in pairs a must. Avoid stop lights. Avoiding frequent traffic jams, you never know who’s next to you. Flashing your IR signals than red lights, as clearance for others to approach. Carpooling reduces single occupant car bombs. Iraqi markets no vehicle traffic during day time. Barricades removed at night so deliveries can be made. Direction of traffic changed daily. Attacks from over passes, Marines blocking off traffic as vehicles pass under bridge. Ambushes also located under bridges and in tunnels, just after bend in the road, or over hill or at low point. Where the shoulder of road is none negotiable, do to steepness of slope, thickness of vegetation or water. If shoulder is negotiable place mines on road sides where vehicles may go around or pull over. When placing cable to snag vehicle it is placed at 30 degrees angle, to direct vehicle off road and to location you are ready to capture. If cable is placed strait across road it may snap, at best the vehicle is stopped in middle of the road, out in the open where fallow on vehicles can see something is wrong up a head. Use cutting aid for your vehicle as anti decapitation. This is a bar welded to front of vehicle. Preparing tree to block road, bark removed placed back after 2/3 cut on trunk. Vehicles having to wait until town buildings burned out before traveling through. Night movements well require more coordination and stain drivers more. More than 50 cm of snow affects vehicle performance and they well use more fuel. Mountains more mines in narrow gaps between positions in more of an irregular pattern than in regular warfare. Ex; Korea due to terrain restrictions, 80 mines were used per tank lost.

Immediate action drills (IAD) term High Profile Convoy (HPC). Lights, speed, guns showing. LPC (low etc.) in cognitoe L or H patrols to? Curfews 9:00 PM -8:00 AM. With IADs emphasize simplicity aggressiveness and speed. Put out smoke ASAP. Steering wheels of disabled vehicles should be turned and tied in place to direct vehicle off road. Gear shift put in neutral. Crew covers passengers exit, then passengers cover crew exit. Try to exit any way you can, if possible avoid normal exits, like tailgate, ramp doors etc. Note vehicle cab designed so seats removable for shields. Marines in kill zones should hitch ride on any passing vehicle. Attack enemy from flank or stern after base of fire establish. Marines fallowing tank tracks and equipment usually are a magnet for fire must keep distance. Hummers levels of armor 1, 2, & 3. Level 1) Factory manufactured, 360 degrees of protection top /bottom etc. Lower center of gravity. 450 manufactured per mouth. Level 2) Equipped with only projectile resistant glass. Add on commercially manufactured armor. Less top bottom. Level 3) Not manufactured armor just add on steel plating. Driving without proper training, operators of level 1 and other heavy vehicles are causing and having more traffic accidents. Need to be retrained. Heavier vehicles means brakes over heating quicker especially in mountain terrain with lots of slopes. Observation dead space for drivers in cars 15-30 feet, RV 30-40, truck 45 shorter drivers 55. Dead space T-62 observation for driver’s 50 stern 40 flanks weapons dead space 70 for 360 degrees.

Note on car bomb tactic of unit steeling car right around corner from objective all members converging on alley each with a peace of the bomb and a part to play, putting it all together while driver says prayer then drives car right around corner to objective i.e. there is no time to react to counter this.

MRE bomb this is using heat tab or tobacco sauce mixed with water inside some kind of container like water bottle or canteen. Note with canteen the pressure will split a crack or hole in canteen not covering any area with contents. You can google it up on video, it may be okay as a diversionary tactic. It can take up to one minute in canteen. 

Doorway threshold rig to go off only with the weight of two on plate at once.

Note: see appendix DEF. rule # 3 for more information.

4) Position main weapons:

This is most effective weapon located in most advantageous point or centrally located to allow access to multiple points, to cover points of interest, avenues and passages. (NOTE on a personal basis this could be placing weapon in a central hallway of a house, so someone could get to it and make their way to any area or room). If more then one weapon available do not bunch them up. Concentrate fire power not weapons. Crew serve weapons covered/concealed to prevent detection i.e. keep enemy form locating them or damage during preparation fires. The primary consideration impacting on the employment of machine guns within built-up areas is the limited availability of long-range fields of fire. Although machine guns should be emplaced at the lowest level possible, grazing fire at ground level is frequently obstructed by rubble. When mounted on a tripod, the .50 caliber machine gun can be used as an accurate, long-range sniper weapon. BGM – 71 TOWs and DRAGONs; within built-up areas, they are best employed from the upper stories of buildings in order to attain long-range fields of fire. Elevated firing positions also increase the first-round hit probability. Firing down at a tank from an angle of 20 degrees increases the chance of a hit by 2/3 at 200 meters. A 45-degree angle doubles the first-round probability of a hit when compared to a ground level shot. Their minimum firing ranges of 65 meters (214 ft) may limit firing opportunities in dense built-up areas (max range is 2 1/3 miles, with muzzle velocity of 278m/s or 917 ft/s). The maximum depression and elevation limits of the TOW mount well result in dead space and hinder close engagements. When deciding whether to dismount TOWs, the commander must weigh the advantage of more flexible firing envelopes against the disadvantage of losing mobility. The portable TOW requires considerable time and effort to move launcher and missiles from position to position. The best technique may be to detach TOWs to units detailed to operate on the periphery of the built-up area, rather than to those within it. Note rocket burn and maneuverability at close range. The DRAGON is lightweight and easily moved. Dragons and LAWs; because of their light weight and mobility, can attain effective short-range shots and catch the tank in a situation where it cannot counter fire. Since the LAW warhead is less lethal than those of the other antitank weapons, multiple hits are necessary. LAWs should be used in volleys, pairs, or sequences. Back blast is an important limiting factor when employing antitank weapons in MOUT. Curtains and overstuffed furniture in the back blast area should be left in place to help absorb sound. Combustible material must be removed from the back blast area. All small loose objects and window/door glass must be removed. In all cases there must be 20 square feet (2 square meters) of ventilation to the stern of the weapons. An open door will normally provide adequate ventilation. For ATGMs, the following vertical clearances between the bottom of the launch tube and the firing aperture are required. The enclosure must be of sturdy construction with a ceiling at least 7 feet (2.1 meters) high. Everyone in the room must be forward of the exhaust pipe of the weapon and must wear helmets and earplugs. Anti structure Role While they are designed and employed primarily to defeat enemy armor, they may also be used when required to attack structures or fortified targets. WWII Anti-tank guns posed something of a problem.  Their main role in an offensive action was to be ready to respond to an enemy counterattack including armor.  They were too vulnerable and unwieldy in the towed version to accompany the assault troops, largely necessitating their being held back along with the reserve.  They would be pushed forward following a successful action to help consolidate the objective, but if they were used in the initial firefight they risked exposing their position to enemy observers.  
The following table summarizes the penetration capability of antitank weapons. 

Depth of penetration for armor;
Figure in feet then meters.

WEAPON        EARTH       REINFORCED       STEEL
                                              CONCRETE
TOW                         8/2.6        4/1.3          1.33/.4
Note TOW 24 inches or two feet to 40 inches or 3.3 feet of armor.

DRAGON                 9/2.6        4/1.3          1/.3
LAW                         6/1.9         2/.6           .67/.2
90mm HEAT            3.5/1.1      2.5/.8        .83/.3

NOTE: Penetration does not necessarily mean destruction of the structure.
Against sandbagged emplacements, antitank weapons should be aimed at the center of the porthole i.e. aperture. Even if the round does not go through the aperture, the bunker's walls are easier to penetrate at the apertures.
Against structures, AT weapons should be aimed about 6 inches below or to the side of an aperture. This will increase the fragmentation effect and enhance the probability of killing soldiers behind the wall.

Mortars;

Mortars; Terrain masking by buildings in MOUT is an important consideration. Mortars are the least affected because of their high-angle trajectory. Mortars can also be fired from between tall buildings. Not wanting to give away there location the mujahideen staggered there rockets. During Mountain or MOUT operations mortars are placed on a layer of branches not directly on frozen ground, ice or concrete. Can be dug in to depth of 10 feet for cover and concealment with the right surface. In MOUT, on hard surfaces mortar aiming stakes can be placed in cans filled with dirt or use knifes etc. Mortars are the main indirect-fire support for forward units in MOUT. Fixed winged CAS and Artillery is often precluded because of blast radius. Due to cover afforded defending forces in MOUT and after enemy has broken though lines accurate indirect fire is of greater importance. Target priorities are given to streets especially intersections and other open areas. WP rounds should impact on or behind building so enemy can not escape in smoke. Proximity fuses used against roof top targets. With MT. mortar rounds will penetrate snow blanket if proximity fuses are not used. Spongy ground of north in summer has a smoothing effect on all fire from all types of weapons hard frozen bare ground or ice when not covered by snow frozen clogs of dirt increases fragmentation effects. MT due to supplies of ammo targets and allotments are important one exception would be units detailed to cover narrow passages. Other target examples, large snow mass or rocks above enemy location.

WWII Fire support; at the start of the war the light 51 mm type mortar was a popular support weapon, versions equipping British, German and Russian Platoons.  By 1942/43 only the British retained their 2 inch model in the role.  Such weapons were intended to deliver explosive rounds, but these proved of minimal tactical benefit, and the British increasingly used theirs to provide a smokescreen.

In WWII the Mortar Platoon was invariably the single most powerful element of the Infantry Battalion. Dependent upon the particular model and ammunition, it could project fire anywhere between 2400 and 3000 meters, close to a maximum of two miles. (Note modern US M252 81mm, min 83m or 273ft. max 5935m or 3.7 miles).  
Fire control could be exercised in one of two ways, through a fixed observation post or a mobile fire controller, but ideally a combination of the two was used (note today add UAV and other aerial sensors). 
The WWII mobile fire controller (MFC) took the principle one stage further. Again drawn from the Platoon, he would accompany the Headquarters of a Rifle Company operating further forward of the established OP. He would be linked by radio to the mortar position and undertook largely the same role as the observer, correcting fall of shot. However, his presence with the Rifle Company allowed him to call in fire missions to engage targets of opportunity or help overcome stubborn points of resistance out of sight of the OP. With out Ops the only solution to such shortcomings was either to push the weapons forward so the crews could see their targets, ignoring a major strength of the mortar i.e. shooting from defiles, or restrict support to rigid fire plans on pre-determined positions, severely limiting the potential for engaging targets of opportunity. Post attack, where an attack succeeded it would open the gap between the mortar positions and the leading riflemen. To continue effective support fire, the mortars had to close that gap by moving forward. This could not be done by the whole Platoon at once, less the Battalion be entirely deprived of its fire for the duration of the movement.  Rather, the Platoon would relocate by Sections, perhaps regrouping around the base of fire provided by an already detached forward Section operating with a Rifle Company. In the withdrawal, the Platoon would again relocate by stages. The advantage was of course that the route and new positions would have been well prepared beforehand. Supplies of ammunition could be located at both the current and secondary sites, allowing the mortars to move quickly into action on arrival at their new home.
Secondary observation posts would likewise be prepared. In static situations, the Mortar Platoon would be loathed to fire from its main position prior to a major assault, as this would inevitably reveal its location to enemy observers. Detachments and Sections could however launch harassing strikes from temporary sites before removing themselves quickly to avoid the inevitable retribution. Such ‘shoot and scoot’ missions would have to be performed well away from the dug in riflemen to spare them the retaliatory bombardment. These tactics could also be used to support fighting patrols gathering information on enemy dispositions, as well as outposts subjected to probing attacks. (Note all the above would be the Taliban methods today). 
Danger close for most Artillery is 50 meters. And 600 feet for 500 lbers.  

5) Set up observation and lessening post:

O/Ps & L/Ps, Post centuries in pairs. Relieve them frequently to avoid fatigue. Every four hours is common. Extreme cold centuries relieved very two hrs. One century for observing one for recording/making notes. Switch duties every 20 minutes. Post should check in on regular basis, if they fail to do so, go see why. Don't call post. Check in times should precede approach time intervals. Centuries should challenge in low clear voice not loudly, this is the rule weather behind enemy or friendly lines. They should wait till last minute. Don’t shoot unless stepped on. If you most take foe out do so silently. You can shoot in eye socket for silencer. If enemy sneaks near, but dose not discover your post all the better. With group have leader approach first then rest of group, one at a time. Each member is cleared and I.D. by leader. Counter sign tactics- there are two parts challenge word for century and pass word /patrol word. Principals #1) Remain oriented to objective; you should not be deterred by minor distractions obstacles or scanty resistance. O/P & L/P are trip wires for attack. Intel is useless unless organized and delivered in timely manner. When in the desert or at sea timely information is more important, negative sightings as important as positive. Number messages so missing or added or false ones will be noted. Separate facts from opinions with a line. If there is a good chance a message will be intercepted, have messenger memorize real massage and carry a false written note. Note messenger could be made aware of contents to use during interrogation, i.e. to counter the testing of captures honesty. Send more then one by different routes. Casualties or bad news delivered by messengers to maintain morale. Messenger can serve as recon too. The fallowing is an acronym used by troops to record information of interest. I Salute R.W.P.  In this case it is a tactical recognizance report. Here we keep it simpler compared to Concept of operation reports. As an individual one would not be observing more than a company size unit at once. One would simply go right down the line noting observations as observed. Note there are some important differences on infuses, mainly R. and W. (I) I.D. who or what. (S) Size, how many. (A) Activity, what was going on. Dust rising high up into sharply defined columns chariots/vehicles are coming. Low and broad Infantry. Dispersed in thin shafts they are gathering fire wood or searching. Spars coming and going they are encamping. If their pennants and flags move about they are in chaos. (L) Location, also give your location and distance form activity. (U) Unit, again the details may or may not be available or noted. Clothing, uniforms, patches. (T) Time, date and time of acquisition and for each activity. (E) Equipment, again simply what is observed. Vehicles, communication, weapons. (R) Reinforcements, allies or signs of working with others, like talking on phones, preparing sites, leaving things behind. (W) With drawl, direction last seen or if you leave area first, witch way might they have gone. (P)? Undecided, could be personalities etc. Seldom up this is yet another acronym to gathering information. This one is used by Marines monitoring communication equipment. Size, Equipment, Location, Disposition, Organization, Movement/morale, Units, Personalities. Five (Ws) and an (H) this is a strategic report. Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How. In this case the acronym is used to answer questions in general over all (on a long term strategic basis). Principals #2) Retain freedom of maneuver; keep the big picture in mind. You should position yourself for surviving and observing. Position chosen for view, clear communications and defensive properties. Roof tops, pros: good view of area, less traffic, cooler and long range communications possible. Cons: must be camouflaged from air observation. Could prove difficult to withdrawal if surrounded. In general you should not move around a lot, pick a spot and stay there, chances are you will see and hear just as much from one location as another. Protection against surprise. Passive measures are camouflage, dispersion, noise and light discipline, hide or defile positions. Active measures conduct patrols set up O/P and L/P. Classifying of post, primary, alternate and supplementary. Day or Night as well as morning/evening, so view not obscured by sun. Extreme north long hours of summer provide long time for viewing, especially from air visa versa (Vv.) in winter. Visibility and observation analyzed independently. Visibility changes with weather, observation with terrain.
Four factors of target exposure; Terrain, Position of observer, Light and atmosphere.
Methods of searching Focus scan This method maximizes peripheral vision. Procedure, focus on object 3 ft out in front of you. You well notice a moment of focus in the peripherals, if you try to concentrate on anyone thing besides point in front, you loose your peripheral vision. Looking for something in the brush, focus on something on the opposite side, though brush.

AKA jungle eye look through it not at it. Stoop occasionally and look along jungle floor.

Quick scan search with eyes first, before moving head. Method used to gather quick understanding of large area. It’s an over lapping sweeping pattern from right to left. Start at nearest point and work out from your position. Adjustments made at 50’ or 50 meters depending on scale of area to be covered. Your eyes well notice more on the right to left sweep. This fact is what makes it easier for someone to locate next line on page they are reading. Search sector 90 degree. Left and right limits 45 degrees each. Eyes tend to relax during search and distant objects blur, to counter this you should focus on clouds or distant land features often. Squinting can help; it changes the focal length of the eye. Searching for aircraft a narrow search sector produces best results. Often inexperienced searchers look to close to horizon for a/c or far too high. Proper angle is 20 degree above horizon. Same distance from tip of little finger to tip of thumb with fingers fully extended at arms distance from face. Once you spot aircraft keep an eye on it. If you most look away note location, direction and speed using clouds or note land features directly below. Detail scan used to check an object or area closer, especially at night. It is a Diamond pattern. Eyes will not focus in motion. Move your eyes in short abrupt irregular movements’ halting your eyes at a fixed point, i.e. Diamond corners, every 4 to 10 seconds around the object or area. The purpose is to concentrate on out line of object. When you look directly at object the image is formed on the cone region located in the stern of eye. Which is not sensitive to night time light. Looking slightly to one side or top of object the  image is formed on retina containing rod cells, witch are sensitive to visual purple night light. Most sensitive area varies with individuals 6-10 degrees. Rod cells bleach out in 4-10 seconds. To demonstrate this, place dark object on table in a very dim lighted room, look right at it, then just off to one side. AKA Off-Center Vision. During the daytime when an individual looks at an object, he looks directly at it. However, if he did this at night he would only see the object for a few seconds. In order to see this object for any length of time, he must look off center 6 to 10 degrees. Normal Blind Spots. Present, day and night. It is caused by the lack of light receptors where the optic nerve inserts into the back of the eye. Occurs or observed when you use just one eye. When you close one eye, objects about 12 to 15 degrees away from where you are looking will disappear. When you uncover your eye, the objects will reappear. Consequently, larger and larger objects are missed as the distances increase. Examples "night blind spots," A hand grenade 2 meters away, soldier at 50 meters, tank at 300 meters.

Figure 7-24. Nighttime field of view using off-center vision


Features of recognition

(S) Size, should be reduced as much as possible then care taken to limit exposure. Objects look closer; when the object is higher than observer (as in mid air) viewed peak to peak when all of valley is not visible. Object is below you, the distance is long and slopes down ward towards object, sun behind you. Or on a bright clear day. When in bright light, spot light etc. The object is of bright color. Object is larger then surroundings, large in size, most of object visible, of regular outline like buildings. When object is framed, EX; viewed through window. In the dessert or at sea by a magnitude of 3. Objects look farther away; when observer is in prone position, looking down narrow long alley/corridor, viewing from above or peak to peak with the entire valley visible. Object above you (distance long, slopes up to wards object) sun is in your eyes or shining from behind object. Object is smaller than surroundings, camouflaged or of dark color, of irregular outline like trees. On hazy, foggy, rainy days. Object in dim light, after sunset or during twilight. Note to clarify the one comparison that may be confusing; objects at bottom of long sloping surface look closer, if surface slopes upward object looks farther away. This seems in contrast to statement; when object higher than observer it looks closer. This is due to the long sloping surface Vs an unseen (as in mid air) or irregular one. (S) Shape, you should break up nature look of things. Change out line. Eliminate strait lines. Avoid skintight clothing. (S) Shadows, more pronounced in desert or artic. Will move with sun. Move quickly with wind at night when being produced by flares. This makes the ground at your feet appear to be moving too, makes it difficult to maintain balance when running. Illumination rounds are placed behind your position in defense, right over enemy when in the offense. This produces shadows out in front of your position and eliminates shadows as much as possible around enemy, like high noon time. Do not cast shadows on windows, out door ways around corners, off roof tops or from objects of cover and concealment. When you are in a tree they must be disguised or concealed. You should park vehicles with maximum vertical area facing sun, dug in too, so you lower the profile, reducing length of shadows. White painted cardboard or burlap placed in shadows. Shadow area illuminated with mirrors. Direction of travel noted by sharp corners. Shadows are the same length as objects casting them at noon. This varies with your latitude and seasons of the year. (C) Color, pay close attention to changes in back ground, especially in deserts. Change vegetation as terrain changes, and often i.e. every few hours to counter welting. Vegetation is struck into belts, straps, button holes, laces. Three colors gives maximum verity and coverage. Anymore colors not enough coverage any fewer colors and less chance of matching back ground.
(T) Texture, Reflections give you away for miles. In desert you can stop on vegetation, in shadows or on broken terrain. Nets can reduce glare or flat paints and rubber surfaces too. Shine caused by wet surfaces. Exposed skin of the face or hands reflects light during the day or night. Even dark skin. Face painting stripe pattern best for morning and evening, blotch pattern for mid day. For specific terrain, blotch is best for temperate deciduous forest and arctic, broad strips for carnivorous forest, and jungles, thinner strips for deserts and grassy or open areas. Highlight low lying areas like eye sockets, neck, and side of face. Darken prominent features nose, lips, chin, cheeks, forehead, and ears. Use two colors on each surface. A little trick was to paint nose like small face. Up close if you were stationary enemy could think he sees you off in the distance. SP the Army is trying to find a face paint that would block the thermal signature of human skin but has yet to find a workable solution. Note IMO they don’t want this tech getting into the hands of the enemy. Using blood red color trauma design i.e. painted up like injuries. Blood red scarf when wet would look like wound, dirt added for guts. (M) Movement, number one reason you will be spotted. Beautifully colored birds are often not seen in the jungle until they move. You should move in slow and flowing movements. Nature is always on the move, this way you blend into back ground. Moving when wind blows is a good idea. Local noises, aircraft, vehicles, may distract foe. Remain in shadows even if it means going out of your way. If you’re not moving at the time airburst or search light hits you, stay still. If it’s a ground flare (meaning someone tripped it) or spot light hall ass. Move immediately after illumination goes out.  Watch animal’s sheep when frightened huddle and look in the direction of what frightened them. Geese and horses look and move away. Rodents run, do not fallow in their paths. Someone hearing them might spot you. Crickets stop chirping up close because of you, at a distance because of enemy. Birds where they congregate it is usually empty. If they get quite or suddenly all take to flight, something or some one has spooked them. Animals are generally better indicators of enemy presents than sight or sound, smells can be the best indicator. You should stay down wind of objective to reduce detection. Stay up wind of fires to avoid smoke smell on you. Do not wear bug fuck/repellent, deodorants or colons. Smells in general and of animals/horses especially strong at dawn and at evening. Non smokers should be kept up front.

Disguises, Decoys, Diversions and counter measures:

Camouflage Discipline; always remember concealment of your unit is a cooperative responsibility shared by you and every individual in the unit. The unit will suffer for the mistake of one member. You won't always have time to do all the things that are mentioned, but you must find time to do the most important ones for the job at hand. Order of importance, from top of the head down; that is, from the most frequently exposed parts to the least exposed.
Marine wearing ladies blue and white head bonnet in cultivated field of high vegetation, so first thing enemy may see well look like a women working in field. You should always suspect that what you’re observing could be a D.D.D. and you should all ways be prepared with counters. Deception is one of the arts of war. In theory it should favor offense, in practice it favors defense. Because attacker is up and about searching for defense. It is one of the primary means to achieve surprise. It conceals ones intentions and capabilities. It causes adversary to react less rapidly and to employ forces in less then optimum manner. When committed to employing troops feign inactivity, thus although your capable display incapability to them. When objective is near, act as if it is far Vs., be differential (showing difference respectfully) to foster there arrogance. Display profit to entice them. Create disorder in there forces and take them. If they are rested force them to exert themselves. If they are united cause them to separate. One who has emissaries come forth wants to rest for a while. One who seeks peace with out setting any prior conditions is executing a stratagem /ruse i.e. move to gain. One who’s troop’s half advance and half retreat is enticing you. Presents of a flag may make attacker think there up against larger unit. Marine signaling as if he is communicating with other Marines to advance, makes foe believe there’s more Marines advancing. Foe well make effort to see advancing Marines, compromising his concealment. In the northern landscape the back ground is not always all white, rocks shrubs brush and shadows make sharp contrast with snow. After freshly fallen snow has melted a little the dead tones of brown and grey start to re-appear.  In woods (some times snow on ground but not in trees) green field jackets maybe warn with white pants Vs. Also with mixed clothing or all whites’ enemy and friendly troops look alike. Hiding behind small object in the shadow of larger one is often over looked. Decoy positions must be placed to fallow tactical plan but far enough away from actual to avoid damage. When withdrawing form base leave detail behind to maintain campfires etc. With radios and equipment retain original operators until withdrawal/replacement complete. The enemy could notice changes in voices and operators habits. And realize unit is moving out. 

Tracks once made stick to them. Bring in supplies on one well concealed route. It may be advantageous to make more tracks to show signs of greater strength than available. Tracks leading to dummy position must be made. Tracks should lead though real position to lead enemy past base. Obvious tracks can be made in retreat direction. Avoid turn around loops. Tracks should end on hard ground or at water. Tracks filled with ashes/coals etc. to make them appear fresh to IR. Vehicle tracks molds/cast made so they can be moved. Gaps made in actual tracks will make them look like molds/casts i.e. dash patterns of decoy tracks.
Vehicles Zig Zagging well distorts tracks in sand. With wet sand extreme inside tread maybe still visible. Vehicles could also tow trailer with wheels rotated to reverse tread of tracks. With water jets on EFV could there not be some sort of attachment to turn jets into blower to erase tracks. 

In the summer tracks across open surface are quit clear to aerial observer and may become quite firm during low night temperatures and will remain indefinitely, as indications of movement. Nature may assist by covering tracks with newly fallen snow or storm concealing all movement. Trees being dragged behind vehicle to cover tracks. Mujahideen traveling with sheep herds. Concealment from air is of greatest concern. Over head tarpaulins or netting, vegetation etc. should be used to cover any extensive digging in snow or earth. Nets used for cover should not be pulled to tight this reveals each supporting pole. Use poles to lift cover off of vehicles or equipment etc. Increases circulation and surface space permits use of top surfaces. Parachute material is good for camouflage and is water resistance. In dessert cover not available concealment more important. Decoy trenches need only be 1 foot deep if floors are lined with vegetation cut to scale. Snow used to make decoy vehicles can be quickly shaped with shovels. Details added by placing ashes, branches, dirt, logs, poles etc. can be frozen into place by pouring water on them. White paper, when wet, can be applied and allowed to freeze on all kinds of surfaces. Snow and vegetation can be placed on actual vehicles to make them look like decoys. Supplies stored in shape of vehicles. Limit activity around actual vehicles equipment and post. Vehicle exhaust or firing of large caliber weapons, as well as Marines breathing may cause local vapor fogs in extreme cold. Maybe necessary to shut off engines or leave vehicles in stern areas. Move weapons frequently. Marines can place ice/snow in mouth although for only short periods of time due to body heat loss. If you need fires to stay alive or keep weapons operational, have many more than necessary for positions and move around frequently. Wood fires should not be aloud in day light hours. If drift wood available remember it well not smoke (DO NOT USE FOR RESCUE FIRES). Long chimneys of blocks of ice to cool smoke before exhausted. In open areas smoke from fires hangs immediately above position if there’s no wind. Under certain conditions like night fall. If position is on high point smoke may flow down hill/down wind. Deception or concealment might be gained by deliberately causing local vapor fogs and allowing it to settle in low lying areas depressions etc. Forest fires, when smoke begins to flow over your position it means a lot of the heat and energy etc. has been lost by the fire. Marines can attack or retreat with fogs on mountain sloops. Fog will shift with changes in temperature and sun. In dessert dragging chains or hovering helicopters can make small units look larger. Maneuver units can leap frog ahead of one another and mask each other with dust. Bleeding diesel fuel into exhaust/onto manifold will make smoke for screening. Traveling during early morning or late evening hours, the sand is damp thus there is less dust. Smoke screens may last longer in MOUT; dust more of a problem with no wind. In snow environment using white smoke for concealment. Smoke screens can be effective when placed behind approaching weapon, between it and crew operating it, to block shooters view of weapon. Smoke used to mask the lack of movement. Pneumatic devices hampered in temperatures below zero or at high altitudes. Blankets or sheets being used as screens should be wet down to resist wind. Smoke pots or fires placed or positioned to hamper I.R. Lt. Amplification or lasers. Burning tires, placed on vehicles near engine, will look like engine already hit. Fumes form rubber puts petrol chemicals in air like oil from engines. Roofing tiles, felt paper and asphalt have very similar signatures. Can be placed on vehicles located on roads or in parking lots to hide them. Chlorophyll from the crushed or cut grass shows on infra-red line scan (IRLS), note mowed lawn grass or mulch? Also to hamper IR keeping one side of vehicle (human body altered every 20 minutes?) facing sun all day, the other side covered with tarps, boards or sand. At night with the covered side uncovered it will show up a lot less on I.R. You park vehicles side by side, sandwich style. Vehicles look like one. Movement at precise time can foil aim of incoming weapons. Also fast moving vehicles traveling down roads with lots of irregularities like dips, can cause just enough vertical displacement for a miss. Drape targets with pictures or paintings of damage. Scarecrow drawl fire props. Placing many items in windows and doorways. Wind and fans used to simulate motion/movement. Hope is snipers will shoot at them and give away their positions. “Trojan Horse” missions utilized on occasion in Iraq. Marines were given relaxed grooming standards, local dress and a civilian vehicle (modified with armor and radios) and conducted patrols in areas with insurgent activity. A QRF was on call and positioned nearby. Such operations have the ability of disrupting insurgent activities. Any insurgent operating in areas of Trojan Horse missions are occurring must wonder: “Is that a cab driver sitting in that taxi over there, or is it..?”
To make few look like many at good range, say 600 yards. Use small number of troops. Exposed at varying points though brush, wearing different equipment in various positions on them etc. Facing and moving in same direction. Deference between 2-6 second exposure can mean life or death. Also multi scaled scarecrow props largest to smallest, set up at increasing ranges according to scale in order to have realistic appearance i.e. give the illusion of depth. To slow or harass enemy patrol, you first shoot off flare at close enough range they will stop and investigate. As soon as patrol regroups and begins to move on there way. Shoot off second flare. Third time you attack. Assaulting a position at night, attack started first with a few mortars, then burst of machine gun fire, troops shouting battle cries, then at once nothing. 30-40 minutes later all repeated. Battle cry much louder, they had crawled forward and where much closer. You could also have reserve troops repeat battle cry the second time from same distance as the first, while attacking troops assault silently. Chem.-lights placed on top of houses to mark for air raid, passed out to locals in Iraq who placed them on the family rival’s roofs. Humvees IR strobe light invisible to naked eye, seen with NVG aids drivers in locating other vehicles. Can look like weapon muzzle flashes. Note shooter using as concealment screening of their muzzle flashes within buildings.   

Mimic sounds from a distance up close volume gradually increased /decreased. Using high energy lasers to cook off ammo of crew served weapons, endangering crews and causing weapons malfunctions.

With persons suspected of wearing synthetic facial prosstitics for disguises one could use a laser beam, by adjusting the heat level and observing the individuals reactions or lack there of i.e. if the nose is false there would be no reaction. This for field expatiate measure. Without having access to IR imaging equipment sensitive enough to distinguish the different signatures. Peace meal tactics, a little of everything being done at once, with no certain activities obvious to observer i.e. pre-positioning equipment. 

Troops riding high up in lattice structures far above normal truck bed level as an anti mine tactic.
Guerrillas placing flares into the air to cause many shadows and light fluctuations to hamper aerial sensors.
Flares or illumination rounds used by ground forces esp. around water standing or running, to hamper aerial sensors. Note standard illumination rounds designed to show light only down, right?
Taliban gathering for meetings in gardens, note they look like average workers. Also earlier mention of gardens being were weapons well be buried.
Producing shadows that look like weapons.
Shadow caster i.e. flash light adapter that would be able to produce silhouettes like shadows to mimic troops running by etc.
Instinctively applying Napoleon's dictum of preparing a circumspect defense before unleashing an audacious attack.

Machine i.e. computer knowing the gamers so well i.e. habits chop of keyboard. Could this not be used against those war gamers in real war.
Aircraft spaying fuel mixture from tanks i.e. dumping fuel than ignited by flares.
Off repellent clip on i.e. fan unit that distributes insect repellent around individual. Note could there not be an anti I.R. arousal agent used in same way.
Trawler fishing nets to stir up silt from bottom as concealment for subs.

Lessening post:

Used when unit is set up in thick vegetation, during bad weather or at night. They are placed farther out than O/P to give more time to warn of attack. Do to fact detection most likely well be at closer range then visual. You can hear better with mouth slightly open, when not breathing or breathing through mouth. When you are close to the surface, especially in holes or trenches, with ears cocked/cupped or next to pole, knife etc. stuck in surface or can/steel pot placed open end up. In winter hoods will canalize and hamper hearing. Helmets wind whirling around causes noise. Snow especially when it’s falling reduces all sounds. In MOUT location and the source of sounds becomes difficult due to the nature of echoing. And the tendency of sounds to carry farther at night. With armor the squeal and squeak of the tracks is louder than engine and easier to pinpoint. Note whistle Vs. yelling in base tone i.e note. This for hailing/calling others to your local. Detection of older Infantry fighting vehicle IFV 800 meters. For the newer Stryker, LAV or M-1 tank 200 m. Canon fire rounds are herd in coming, mortars are not. Average speech hard at a distance of 1320’ in a vacuum, or sound prove volt, 400’ out in the country side, 125’quite office/library, 40’ average office/department store, 12’ lobby or mall, 4’ at road side, 15” for subway. Sound range estimation by flash and sound. Sound travels through air at approximately 350 m/s, count seconds between flash and sound if you most count more than 9 seconds start over. Multiply number of seconds by 350 to get the range to weapons in hundreds of meters. Helicopter blades making different sounds at altitude, more of a cracking sound.
Mentioned on SP under warplanes F-35 has a fatal flaw. A decibel is defined as 10*log (P1/P0), which means "twice as loud" will add 10*log (2) = 3.01 decibels to the noise level. So, "Twice as loud" only means another 3 decibels and, since the power of sound decreases with the square of distance, 3 decibels is barely noticeable from far away.  If the media stays out of it, I doubt anyone will notice. 

Note see Appendix Defense rule # 5

6) Choose and prepare fighting holes:

As with clearing fields of fire (rule # 8) and camouflaging area you must estimate time available not only to complete but remove if situation applies. Buildings with tin roofs make good positions, due to anti fire properties. Avoid older structures, if these must be occupied, extensive efforts are required to reduce the dangers of fire. Fires can double every 30 seconds. Smoke kills three ways, blocking oxygen into system, toxic fumes, lack of oxygen i.e. consuming it in the area. Use the back of hand in a zig-zag patern when checking for heat behind door etc.

Cover attic and other wooden floors with one inch of sand or dirt. Position buckets of water or sand bags for immediate use. Water basins and bathtubs are filled. All electricity and gas are turned off. Firebreaks are created by destroying buildings adjacent to position. Corners and lower levels of buildings are stronger than else where. Destroyed vehicles make good fighting holes also existing craters caused by enemy or friendly fires. Do not choose isolated trees or bushes. 

Snow covered terrain. On the down wind side of every obstacle, house, tree, or bush there is always a hallow, which may provide an excellent observation point or fighting hole. The wind particularly in open areas may form long wavy snow drifts and Snow banks along side plowed roads too. Either maybe used as an approach to objectives. Snow drifts are less of a problem in forest on hills or slopes. When preparing fighting holes you should team up, into teams of two or three. One for security one or two for working. Time to prepare the defense may be the most critical factor in selection of building or positions. Buildings that require extensive time consuming reinforcements, fire prevention measures or clearing of fields of fire should be avoided. With existing positions continuously improve, Marines constantly preparing fighting position (also areas used during assaults) for fallow on Marines. Add or remove rocks, dirt, sand bags, to fit your height. Fighting holes should be as deep as mans armpits. Estimated average time to dig, two hours. Stockpile extra sand bags in fighting holes as a fire-fighting aid. Sand bags are filled uniformly ¾ full, tie straps placed in bags and facing inward. Alternate placement of bags. 

Urban setting any structures on the outside of a building that would assist scaling to gain access to upper floors or to the roof are removed or blocked. Remove glass, leave curtains and hang cloths in exits. Curtains and furniture cushions can reduce noises. Inter walls removed, blankets hung to look like them. Clear walls for back blast 2 meters square hole. Open door at minimum. Ceiling 2 meters higher than weapon. Barricading or boarding up doors and windows leave many gaps. Avoid barricading only the windows to be used. Making loop holes, neat square or circular shapes avoided. Try to preserve looks of the outside. Have many false ones to conceal real. Should be cone shaped on the inside i.e. increasing size inwardly. Covered on inside with protective linings, such as an empty sandbag or wire mesh for protection from splinters caused by incoming rounds. Brick walls especially splinter when hit by bullets. The bottom should be loosened so grenades can be dropped outside. Covered completely with sandbags when not in use, to prevent the enemy from observing through them or keep enemy form detecting them. Conceal them behind pictures, drapes, furniture and shrubs. Create loop holes in roofs chimneys, mail drops, under door jams, under stairs though steps, though interior walls placed to cover hallways and unoccupied rooms. Loopholes in floors permit the defender to engage enemy on lower floors with small arms and/or to drop grenades. Avoid firing directly through a loophole. Use table or chairs to fire down from loop holes. Ground Floors, All doors not used by defenders are locked, nailed shut, and blocked with furniture or sandbags. Exit doors are booby trapped. Hallways/Stairs not required for the defender's movement are blocked with furniture and tactical wire. Floor level; if there is no basement, fighting holes are dug into the floor for additional protection against heavy direct-fire weapons. Wet down floors and blankets in front of crew serve weapons to reduce dust and debris. Prone positions do not always permit sufficient freedom for firing at widely varying angles or at targets above the position. Holes for elbows lower profile. Weapons with top or side feed magazines or belts also reduces profile. Firing stakes one stake at stern/shoulder, or in pistol grip to indicate base. One left and one right to indicate left and right limits. Especially useful at night. SP instead of aiming stakes carry several empty sandbags. These can be filled on the spot (and emptied when it is time to move). Cross fields of view as will as fires. They should intersect at perimeter in the range of 33 yards. Purpose provides mutual support between adjacent units, reduces number of gaps in final protective fires. Perimeter should be convex i.e. curved slightly inward. As enemy approaches sides they come under increasing cross fires. Interlocking machine guns, located at corners to give greater chance to attack enemy’s flanks or stern. Crew served weapons produce the most KIA. The close proximity of others in the crew, which assists with ammo, provide security and the fire power of the weapon, reassures and helps suppress anxiety. Individuals tend to seek cover and not fire. Construct grenade slumps. These are made to absorb explosions of grenades. Floor is angled towards one corner where a hole is located. This has a small entry point only large enough for hand and length of arm to inter and hallow out cavern at base. Or there is the roof style type; floor is slanted from center in two directions like roof, with deep narrow gutter trench, surrounding edge of floor. In MOUT netting, sheets, fencing or chicken wire can be used to give some protection too. Wire screening (chicken wire) is preferable to camouflage netting because it will not burn readily. Camouflage floors with vegetation to conceal from air; do not use twigs or branches. Grenades that fine their way into your fighting hole well not roll into grenade slumps. In MOUT floors can be greased down or ball bearings/marbles used to cover floor, Marines would ware crampons or cleats. Rubbling certain parts of the building provide additional cover and concealment for weapon emplacement.

Positions with flat-roofs require anti-helicopter obstacles. Roofs accessible from adjacent structures are covered with tactical wire and guarded. Entrances to the building from the roof are blocked. Each position should have complete overhead and perimeter protection. Sand bag floors and or table tops over your position. Ceilings are reinforced with supports, all done to withstand the weight of rubble from upper floors. Removing or collapsing roofs, ceilings and floors, provides better protection against indirect fires, if Marines can locate themselves around large hole on upper floor or platforms extending from walls above ground level. Over head cover having (sun roof) for throwing grenades. When Marines expected to remain in area for a while equipment must be covered also with fighting holes in the field, tunnels are dug for protection from indirect fires. With snow structures use sticks for checking thickness of walls. Positions are made to appear flat when observed from ground level, or form air. Cover should blend in with the natural surroundings, vegetation and elevations. Smoothing cover/roofs by packing the snow (must be rounded off) in order to eliminate any sharp features that may produce shadows or reflections. 

 Vegetation can be exposed through top of netting or tarps. Surrounding vegetation i.e. living vines are pulled over the emplacement. The halve shelter the black triangle formed by the interior shadow can be seen a long way off, especially from the air. Conceal it by striking the front tent pole or by covering the opening and the outline of your tent with natural materials. Never pitch a shelter tent in daylight unless you are ordered to do so. The flat-top is an answer to the problem of concealing dug-in machine-gun positions. The simple flat-top requires no framework. Corner posts are not driven; they rest on the ground and are held in place by double strands. The whole structure is as low to the ground as possible. It can also be angled towards higher background, to best blend in with back ground. For a deliberate position, especially in terrain with natural foliage, the folding buggy-top conceals the machine gun which has an antiaircraft or all-around fire mission. It can be folded back quickly, allowing the gunners to engage aerial targets. For hinges use cloth or pieces of scrap leather, or stock door hinges. Take care that the vegetation around the position is not compressed by the buggy-top when it is open. Also in a deliberate position, the swinging flat-top (Figure 64) is a slightly more elaborate flat-top for anti-aircraft machine guns. It is a cantilever structure hinged on a post at one corner. It is easily pushed to one side, giving the gun an unobstructed view of the sky.




FIGURE

Advantages of snow, protection from wind for engines when snow walls are built. Easy to dig trenches for communications. Trenches each Marine assigned a certain number of feet to prepare. As a rule observe odd numbers. Trenches covered with branches just before fresh snow fall to camouflage. Layer of branches, leafs placed under first layer of logs around fighting hole, to keep water from leaking in. Pykrete: Ice and sawdust mixture much stronger and melts much slower than regular ice. It is bullet resistant. And will actually float. There is also Ice create, water mixed with dirt, sand, gravel/rocks can be poured into wood forms and tamped, as it is poured. It is darker than ice or snow absorbs more heat. And therefore will melt quicker. You can cover it with snow, this well also reduce ricochets and provide camouflage. It will need repairs after fired upon. Encasement walls hollow interior filled with sand to absorb shock from battering rams. Also would have impeded entry by troops, sand harder to remove than bricks. Ground held to gather by roots of vegetation grass etc cut into bricks. Salient prominent conspicuous jutting walls curved around entrances, gates etc. Wide latus apparatus principle to block entrances also Claviculae (little hooks). Fighting holes constructed facing backwards, meaning in direction enemy will be traveling. So he walks right over into ambush. When position complete always view from foes view point. Penetration table: They had prepared boxes, containing wood, brick, earth and sand. From 100 yards, only the sand stopped it. On average bullets well pass through 13’ of newly fallen snow. If firmly frozen 8-10’, packed 6’, ice 3’, Pykrete or ice create 1½’. 18 inch thick walls of Afghan homes said to widthstand m-16s. Altitude higher oxygen less, ice becomes harder/concrete too. Body armor weight 9 oz per square inch, will stop 25, 22, and 38 caliber. 20oz for 9mm and 44 magnums. M-16A1 and A2 both weapons perform the same at 50m or less. The closer the range less penetration. At ranges of 25 m or less pent. greatly reduced. Round still yawing, angled at impact. Well ricochet or break up. At less than 50 m. 5.56 stopped by 18”-24” layer of books, one thickness of sandbags, 2” concrete, and 55 gallon drum filled with water or sand. Car door /body will inter may not exit. Over all at 45 degree angle ricochet percentage increases greatly. Rounds can ricochet on glass at a 45 degree angle. M16A1 maximum penetration is at 200 m. Pent. 120 mm. also 14 acrylic glass plates 1” thick each. 5.56 mm pent two plates/2”, 7.62 four plates and kinetic energy knocked all other plates down. Kevlar first developed 1970s for tires. Protection approval ratting, 2” diameter 44 cu mm max trauma/damage allowed. #5 boron carbine hardest ceramic mat known. Dragon skin ceramic desk material MFG company pinnacle armor in California.
SP 1/2000; troops are currently provided with the 20-year-old flak jackets which can stop shrapnel (not bullets). Added plates can stop 5.56mm bullets, but increase the weight to 25 pounds. The Interceptor jackets weigh less (only 16 pounds including their ceramic plates). They can stop shrapnel or 9mm bullets; the added ceramic plates can stop 7.62mm rounds.
M-16 well not pent. 8” of pine, at 28 yards the AK – 47 well.

SP Oct 2000; USMC MACHINEGUN TACTICS; "talking guns" tactic, two machineguns work in tandem. Each fires a short burst, then waits to hear the other before firing again. The doctrinal rate of fire is a burst of 6-8 rounds followed by a pause of 6-8 seconds. This ensures the bursts are six-eight seconds apart. As a practical matter, if friendly troops are not exposed while advancing on the target, a pause of 10-12 seconds will be adequate to keep the enemy pinned down. This doesn't really help when the guns are firing on different targets, although it does help each gun maintain its timing. It would be better to train each gun crew to count its own intervals as it is difficult in combat to hear clearly what the other gun crew is doing. There is also a tendency of one gun to increase its rate of fire when the second is reloading. One trick is for one gun to start with a 100-round belt and the other with 200 rounds. After firing the initial belt, each gun uses 200-round belts. This staggers reloading cycles. Doctrine calls for the gunner's left hand to remain on the elevating wheel of the traversing & elevation mechanism. This allows the gunner to adjust the fall of his rounds as needed or as directed by the team leader. Without intense training, however, the gunner has a tendency to move his hand back to the gun after each adjustment. This makes the weapon less stable and harder to adjust quickly. Training technique; tape a laser pointer to a cleaning rod. Insert this into the barrel of the weapon when dry firing inside a dimly-lit armory the team leader can track the abilities of the gunner to aim and adjust his weapon. The training of gun teams (on a static firing range) tends to make them think they are fighting alone rather than as a part of a platoon. Troops must be trained to maintain situational awareness. During training maneuvers, the team leader should periodically ask the team what else is going on around them to encourage them to note the broader picture. When two machineguns are working together the junior gun crew should be deployed farther forward than the senior crew. This will allow the senior team leader to keep an eye on the other gun and coordinate barrel changes and reloading. It could be hoped that at least 60% of operations are offensive in nature, but 95% of machinegun training is in defensive tactics and engagements. Gun crews should be trained in how to select and occupy a firing position while remaining under cover. Gun crews should carry empty sandbags to help them set up interim firing positions during an advance. If they have access to a vehicle, they should have filled bags on the floor to use and get the gun into action faster. Medium machineguns (M60 or M240) are not the same as heavy machineguns or Mark-19 grenade launchers. Gunners moved from one system to the other require formal retraining in order to establish the mindset. Medium guns use high rates of fire to suppress positions or break up attacks. Heavy machineguns are best for attacking vehicles or bunkers. Mark-19s are best when used to engage light armor, heavy bunkers, or troops in defilade. Mark-19 grenade launcher crews need to remember that they are one of the few weapons capable of engaging enemy forces behind cover or in defilade If Mark-19 rounds are striking a target which other weapons could engage and take out, something is wrong. Mark-19 ammunition is bulky and should not be used when other weapons can do the same job. The 40mm grenades will penetrate two inches of steel armor while .50-cal machinegun rounds will penetrate only one inch, so if the target is lightly armored, the .50 - cal may be the best weapon for the job. 

Sp Firing tables at altitude are inaccurate and need to be redone.
Artillery ammunition storage and handling is very important in a dry, hot environment.
Very hot ammunition will affect the ballistic solution, which will cause the round to impact long or short of its intended target.
Digging in storage positions for ammunition will keep it cooler.

7) Establish communications:

LINES OF COMMUNICATION (LoC) a vast network of modern highways, all-weather roads, railroads, and canals connect built-up areas. These LoCs can permit rapid access to virtually all areas. Modern four-lane highways, capable of accommodating thousands of heavy vehicles, crisscross NATO-Europe. Frequently, these highways bypass the larger cities, or at least avoid the congested centers of most built-up areas. Limitations; they are often built across terrain that is relatively impracticable for vehicular traffic and are heavily dependent on bridges, ramps, overpasses and tunnels. They should not be used unless suitable bypasses are available.

Note 4th GW; Every effort should be made to prevent destruction of the local telephone system, radio and TV stations, police or taxi radio systems and other communication facilities. They are already in place and there use by our forces provides immediate access to wire communications with overhead and buried cable. Local media, such as newspapers, provide communication with the locals. Wire can be laid while friendly forces are in static positions, but careful planning is necessary. When running lines and wire for phones they are laid through walls and floors, berry them use underground systems ditches, culverts, and tunnels to keep the wire below the streets, or use existing telephone poles to raise wire lines above the streets. All done to protect against vehicles and other traffic. Do not run wires directly across fields to your positions. Antennas should be hidden or blended in with the surroundings. Locate them among civilian TV antennas, up the side of a chimney, water towers, steeple, on roof slopes or out a back window away from the enemy observation and knock holes in walls below rooftop level for directional antennas. Consider parking radio-equipped vehicles inside buildings dismount radio and install it inside buildings (in basements); place generators against buildings or under sheds to increase noise absorption.

Trouble shooting radios; 1) Check function switch no/off. 2) Battery and power source. 3) Connections of wires, plugs, Antenna well mount. 4) Ck frequency, channel or station. 5) Hand set switch, mike switch. Throat microphone reduces back ground noises. Units should perform radio checks at a distance.
In MOUT Ground search radars GSR and remote electronic monitoring systems REMS have limited use in the center of cities. They are best employed on the outskirts to monitor traffic into and out of. If necessary GSR can be used to cover large open areas such as parks. REMS can be used in sub terrain areas. IR used at airports etc. to check to see if people have fevers. Note the five by five i.e. loud and clear vs. lets say three by five i.e. weak but clear etc. first number represents signal strength second number represents the single clarity or reliability.  

Decide on signals; Visual signals, such as arm-and-hand signals, Sign language viewed through telescopes.
Sign language/hand signals can be used if foe is at close range. This is also necessary when working with foreign troops. Whenever passing word IMO due so loud clear and once, i.e. repeated at proper intervals only. In other words if you barely heard it chances are the next Marine did not hear it, or if the Marine beyond you is not observed or heard passing the word. In addition, IMO Marines, gangs and sports teams for that mater should teach and use official International sign language. Not some customized limited back on the block signals someone with too much time on their hands (lol) came up with, meaning new arrivals must learn it to be effective members. Everyone using ISL would promote it worldwide thus making communication with civilians easier too. IMO the coding of any messages should not be in the signal its self but in the way words are interpreted, that could also change maybe depending on the date being an odd or even number. Example; you may say or sign to your unit “departure well be around 0;00 hours, or we depart about 0;00 hours”. In the first statement you here the word (around) in your mind you know that means to go around 0;00 hours, in other words 01;00 hours, in the second statement you hear (about) you know that means in your mind you due an about face and you are facing 23;00 hours. Anyone may see you signing the message, they may know what you communicated they don’t know the correct interpretation. However they believe they do after all they know ISL and so they may waste time and effort planning based on that incorrect interpretation. Rhythm even but broken into logical parts speak slightly slower and louder than normal with higher pitch for clarity.
Pyrotechnics, or make use of smoke signals too. Recon using flares, balloons or Church bells to report sightings or movements of the enemy. The Mujahideen scouts fired flares to mark location of targets. Marking panels are also excellent means for communicating. When used for extended periods their meanings should change. Since foe may capture or manufacture copies. The noise in built up areas makes it difficult to use audio signals.
Messengers provide security and flexibility; Dogs used for messengers or to reach isolated O/Ps and L/Ps their mess tins packed with ammo as well. Carrier pigeons 60 mph, 600 miles max range. With guerrillas, letters not from post office in same area or close to receiver. They should be sent to support group, community center then delivered by carrier. False return address. Invisible ink using a dip pen, written on plain sheet of paper. Use milk, vinegar, lemon, apple juice or urine. Paper would be held up to light or over candle to read. Another method of heating is ironing. Chemical solutions which are colorless dry also appear as various colors if they are treated with another solution. It is also possible to dissolve an aspirin (not child’s) in alcohol then dip a cotton ball in solution and whip over message. Cipher using later of alphabet out of sequence by one place. Passing notes in cigarette pack. Using a stick of a certain diameter, a strip of paper or tape with letters written on it, would by wrapped around stick to align letters. Resume used to communicate on internet. Colleague of photos that form an image. Perspective view art and holographic tech for covert communications. Batman laser writing in clouds, read with IR set to frequency. LEDs communicator could work shutter (spring loaded) device with string etc. Lessening tactic floating balloon to alt. than hitting it with laser or Farphoon. Note non lethal or less lethal (L RAD) i.e. long range acoustic system, these systems can also project messages or lesson to conversations. When used on small boats on rough seas it can be difficult to keep beam on target. Marines’ equipment with international calling codes that can be used on landlines in foreign nation.

Spinning flashlight on a core or rope as a signaling tactic. Makes large hallo of light.


Note see Appendix DEF rule # 7

8) Clear fields of fire:

Before clearing estimate how much can be done in time available. Start clearing near your position, clear narrow lanes in an irregular pattern. Avoid making tracks in your sector of fire and area as lanes are cleared. Under snow conditions burst of machine gun fire can cause long black streak shadows indicating location of positions. Cut lower branches of large trees. Thin under brush; leave a then natural screen of vegetation to hide position. Clear away anything that obscures your view or rounds going down range, out to max effective range of small arms. Every thing removed is brought back to your position and used or destroyed. Stroke upward on tress to limit sound.

9) Construct obstacles:

Also known as combat multipliers, supporting and subsidiary means that significantly increases the relative combat strength of a force while actual force ratios remain the same. Obstacles parallel (same direction at a fixed distance) to direction of attack may assist in protecting the flank of attacker. Obstacles perpendicular favor defense. In MOUT, cars can be filled with sand etc. and rolled around. Barricades are defended from a distance, because you have no protection from grenades or indirect fire. Obstacle losses 50 % of its effectiveness if not defended. Wire is meant to slow or canalize foe into fields of fire. Tactical wire is located within machine gun fields of fire to delay foe during FPF. Protective wire is located just out beyond grenade range. With barb wire check for booby traps and early warning devises, pull on it with rope and grappling hook. You can also pull it away from riot police. Use smoke to conceal your crossing over wire. Use materials like cardboard, chicken wire, wood etc. When going under place weapon lengthwise so it will slide along. Cutting your way though, cut only lowest wire, lease chance of being discovered. Wrap cloth around wire before cutting it. Combat engineers aka pioneers or sappers. Highly trained not as easily replaced as infantry. Their mission is mobility for blue forces, counter mobility of foe. MT. warfare roads, more cut and fill types, built as situation changes not preconceived plans. Roads fallow contour lines but not along crest or ridges. Sappers also used to set up elaborate defensives quickly. Weapons: mines, special explosives, flame throwers. USMC Wolverine also USMC Grizzly combat engineer vehicle CEV.

SP 10/2000; mobile/herd mines, acoustic microphones, IR can detect and rearrange to max attack. So work to develop a mine similar to the early 1980s model, except that this one would use a pneumatic piston to pop the mine 30 feet into the air. This would force enemy troops to spend a lot more time trying to clear these mobile anti-vehicle mines. Meanwhile, the mines could also radio friendly artillery to fire a few shells to the mine field. While anti-personnel mines are illegal, artillery is still legit.


10) Cover dead spaces:

Any area you cannot attack the enemy with direct fire. Example leeward side of a hill, a Slope, depression, large bolder, group of trees etc. You must assign these areas to mortars, artillery, Grenadier or body trap them. Mortar dead space ½ the height of building. Artillery 5 times the height. With tank 30 m. to 10 m height. 3-1 ratio distance from target that is to height of impact. Remember dead spaces can be directional; you might be able to cover area from one direction in defense position. However, during counter attack or if enemy shifts direction, different areas could become dead spaces.

11) Organize a Final protective fire F.P.F.:

This is rigging up position for self-destruction, incase enemy over runs. You will have prepared a strong point at command post C/P. This is where unit gathers for protection. F.P.F. can be done in shifts i.e. layers. Every Marine should empty magazines while falling back and destroy all equipment you cannot take with you.

Weapons coverage;
60mm x2 tubes 60x30m
81mm x4 tubes 100x35m
105mm howitzer x 6 guns 180x 40m
107mm mortar x 3 tubes 150x40m
107mm mortar x 6 tubes 300x40m
120mm mortar ?
155mm howitzer x 4 guns 200x50m
155mm howitzer x 6 guns 300x50m
155 mm howitzer x 8 guns 400x50m

Area being bombarded by artillery becomes a no fly zone.


12) Dig tunnels, trenches and prepare avenues between positions:

In general this is done so supplies can be distributed and forces can be shifted quickly. Trenches staggered i.e. dug on zigzag course. Dug under the cover of darkness or use smoke, to conceal digging. Shovel out dirt, snow in direction of enemy. Dispose of excess soil by covering it with leaves, place it under brush or flush it down streams. Also clearing of creeks and digging drainage ditches around shelters and tents. Sufficient routes are required to permit defending forces to move within the building or base to engage enemy forces in any direction. Additionally, small holes are made in walls to permit movement between rooms. House holing corner holes in ceilings could provide access to multiple rooms maybe four or eight. Note removing frames or beams may weaken structure too. Would be best to choose location of ceiling wall juncture. Wall would aid with climbing. Avoid the center of ceilings or floors. Loop holes are concealed behind furniture and blocked with sandbags when not in use. Movement between floors is accomplished by knocking holes in ceilings/floors and using ropes or a ladder that can be quickly installed or removed. Once the defender has withdrawn to upper floors, these holes are blocked with timbers and furniture. Escape routes to permit rapid evacuation are clearly marked for night and day due to smoke and dust. All personnel are briefed and practice evacuation over different routes.

13) Stock pile supplies:

Not all of the same items stored in same place. Stored in order you well use or need items. Dessert, water in plastic jugs will be good for up to 72 hours, Water in metal containers is safe only for 24 hours, if water trailers are kept cool, water is considered fresh and safe to drink, up to 5 days. The ice should be removed from tanks before moving them. Note best to use crushed ice or allow it to melt before moving tank. Water containers stored in the shade and benefit from an air draft. In an area protected from puncture or shrapnel. Able to be easily dismounted in case of vehicle evacuation. When you become thirsty you will be about a "quart and a half low" Drink before you work; carry water in your belly, do not "save" it in your canteen. Water purification one gallon of clear water requires 8 drops of bleach, cloudy 16 drops. 5 gallons clear ½ teaspoon, cloudy 1 teaspoon. Aid relief agencies generally avoid putting stations close to boarders of hot spots to discourage migration and prevent aid workers or supplies being captured.

COOKING

High altitude 25 degrees extra added to temperature 375 vs. 350 and two table spoons of floor added to cake mix at or above 3500 feet. The minimum daily fuel consumption per Yukon stove was approximately five gallons of gasoline per 8 to 12 hours of operation. Only cold rations served on patrols, eliminates heat and odder signatures.
Note possible link to Appendix to Administration and logistics here.

14) Plan your counter attack:

With retreats at night there is less observation or pursuits. Winter gives the advantage to the retreat; in open areas positions are not always visible. Upon retreats take spoils of the slain. The unit driven off loses more than the battle. Have scouts recon retreat routes. Routes should not be steep, thick or confined. In Forrest roads are blocked with fallen trees, as obstacle for your pursuer. Marines must see it as a means to drawl the enemy into an ambush. Cavalry withdrawn last to conceal infantry movements. Appoint stay behind troops. Retreating unit may reverse and attack sleeping pursuer. River crossings and narrow passes provide good time for pursuer to time intercept, or a reverse. The maxim of Scorpio; “that the golden bridge be made. When they have room to escape they think of nothing but”. An adversary is more hurt by desertion then by slaughter. On the contrary given no way out, adversary becomes a match for any attacker. From the very fact that they have no recourse but in despair the conquered safety is to hope for none. Counter attack enemy in the midst of joy after victory. For where loses and advantages are nearly equal he is reputed to have the superiority who rears up against his misfortunes with greatest resolution. He should therefore be first if possible to seize the spoils of the slain and to make rejoicing for victory. Often those who first loss, in the end are victorious. Deliberate encirclement as a defensive tactic. Marines stayed put and held out. Aloud attackers to sweep pass but inflected damage and casualties on them, all the while denying key points, intersections etc. Playing off the offensives goal to maintain the advance. Once encircled go into defensive mode, seize heights, restrict vehicle traffic, it saves fuel and you have the inside routes of the circle, so the enemy must go around.

In WWII interesting mention is made of the Carriers i.e. modern IFVs being used to establish outposts and support existing ones. This was qualified by the caution ‘they MUST be withdrawn at night’. When the conditions of the battlefield restricted the intended deployment of the Carrier, it was swiftly put to other uses. A British style Infantry Battalion had an enviable concentration of motor transport by comparison to other formations. While soft skin vehicles could not be used to ferry troops forward or casualties back under fire, Carriers could. This latter role was particularly important and helped save many lives. Fresh supplies of ammunition, food, water and other necessities could also be moved. APC can also ram buildings to breech them.
construct

15) Develop alternate and supplementary positions:

Alternate position to be occupied when primary one has become unsuitable for carrying out unit’s task. Located so that individuals or units can continue to carry out original task. Supplementary is a position from which over all situation must be reevaluated. Basically this is doing everything over again two more times.


Conduct of the defense


Joke; the enemy’s diversion you’re ignoring is the main attack. Troops should not man their fighting holes continuously; they well only give their locations away. Man them continuously when in thick terrain, during bad weather or at night. Sense foe can get in close and surprise you. Historically, darkness of night the necessity of sleep, dispersion of the horses in the pasture/modern vehicles under maintenance, affords opportunity for surprise.
Attacks also at night or in the morning; since these are hours of refreshment, meals and or showers. All Marines should be alerted and ready any time patrols exit camp, also kept at a distance from exits. When you wake up, get up, could be something woke you. Eat sleep and maintenance is done in shifts. Commander is positioned for max view of battle field, so to direct fire, through tracers fired by designated shooters. Cmdrs, F.O. or DMRs can use tracers in the day time and lasers at night to mark targets. Cmdr engages only if direct action is needed to turn the battle. Best way to truly soften up defense is through psychological means. Defenders that are fighting for something they believe in are difficult to demoralize. Enemy will usually have preemptory fire to soften up position. This is when you man positions. Check behind you often and always be prepared for hand to hand combat. Steel blades ready. Obey all commands and fields of fire. Do not shoot at some one far off to one side of your position. He well be in someone else’s field. Remember when using grenades they won’t give your position away and there’s no need to see the enemy. They are tossed at angles not strait out. Advantages of defense; by assuming a defensive posture a unit doubles or triples its firepower. The defender under cover is difficult to see. The attacker is nervously aware of the invisibility, this leads to panic. Attackers see comrades being hit by unseen defense. The defense also sees this and is encouraged. Defensive casualties are not seen by attacker or defense, further widening morale. Defense knows, safety is as close as the bottom of the fighting hole. When attacker goes for cover the attack brakes down. However, ultimately a defense produces only various degrees of defeat. If the defense dose manage to clobber attacker, it well only be rewarded with orders to counter attack. If next attack well succeed. A well timed retreat, will force enemy to waist time and supplies attacking empty position, thus weakening enemy for counter attack. If foe is repelled pursue with steady stream of fire i.e. shoot them right in the back! Make a damage report, note all KIA, WIA, and MIA, which you are aware of. Do an ammo count, so it can be redistributed. All information is reported to command. Then reestablish O/Ps and L/Ps. Re-camouflage; if your fighting hole was not found during first attack, chances are it won’t be assaulted during second attack. If enemy over runs the position, you will see the FPF visual signals. You then retreat to strong point. FPF can be in the form of CAS, guns from ship or shore, or explosives rigged on site. Relief forces are best brought up in day light. Routes forward can lead through basements, tunnels, halve walls etc. If troops brought up during darkness they lack orientation. Use face of buildings across street for marking boundaries.
In the advance, it is possible to bypass certain obstacles, or at least fix them with fire.  In the defense, any reverse gives the attacker a toehold in the position.

Over all tips


Reasons to assume: 1) Hold key terrain for surveillance etc. 2) Make plans. 3) Gather supplies, make repairs. 4) Rest. Good defensive planning discourages attack. Frederick the great “Little mines try to defend everything at once, but sensible people look at the main point, they parry the worst blows and stand a little hart, if there by avoiding the grater one. If you hold everything you control nothing”. Thus if they are prepared to defend to the front the stern will have few. If to the port, starboard has few. All positions all few. Position should be defendable by 1/3 of total force. Economy of force in one area to mass in another, this is taking every third man from one area and sending them elsewhere. In general fire should be opened ASAP to hamper offence during preparations for attack. Historically with stone throwing (Futtiablus range 600’) the attacker is often more annoyed by stones then arrows. Stones can kill without mangling body or loss of blood. Position your forces in depth and place obstacles in depth. Gives you the ability to absorb attackers initial blow, and time and space to figure out what he’s up to, develop situation, maneuver and concentrate your power where it is needed. Your choice of square, triangle or oblong shape depends on terrain. The circle provides best defense. Perimeter depth, one third the length, if area to small it confines Marines, to large they well be to dispersed. During summer place yourselves near water. In winter near foliage and wood. Raking lines in dirt or sand of perimeter to detect traffic. Guidelines to assist lost Marines should not be strait (i.e. lead right to base). Parapet built with under cut notches to allow lateral communications. Notches cut to depth below base of walls to detect tunnels (mining). Reasons not to set up a defense: Area consisting of lightly constructed buildings of flammable material. Next to hazardous industrial site, area around site is dominating. Avoid outer limits of cites to leave a buffer zone. Buildings located on the edge will be targets of direct fire weapons. In certain situations, requirements for security and fields of fire will require the occupation of exposed buildings. In such cases, additional reinforcing construction is necessary to provide suitable protection.  Multiple buildings provide mutual support. Single buildings can be isolated or by passed. In dessert static/stationary defense is rare, due to the fact that there is very little difference from one location or another. No real advantage, enemy can easily by pass or isolate. Bad weather slows operations which reduces casualties. Loses from disease and sickness increase. Cumulative effect slows things up by 50 %, this reduces casualties even more. Chemical weapons have same effect. Although with a slightly higher casualty rate. Flat open terrain speeds up operations. If fast pace maintained more fatigue more casualties. Bare ground and good weather favored offence. Thick terrain and bad weather favor the defense. Buildings reduced to rubble make better cover and concealment than those left standing. Mountain warfare Defensive advantages, dominant terrain provides defense with and denies the attacker observation and firing positions. A good area for position is around the edges of small clearing. This is true for all terrain. Hill sides and ridge slopes are less traveled. Cold air sinks warm rises so camp high on mountain slopes but still in tree line. Cons: Difficulty in digging fighting holes, more time needed. Lack of roads restricts vehicle usage and makes them vulnerable. Small unit nature of mountain warfare, makes it difficult to coordinate and conduct counter attacks, and for the shifting of support. Pack artillery/mortars are used more often. Supporting fire is likely just before reaching objective on windward side. Infantry attacking over rising terrain is easier to support, up to the point of reaching the objective, than one over descending terrain. Although impacts may dislodge rocks or cause avalanches endangering attacker. Grazing fire is poor to impossible. Wooden slopes and cliffs make surprise attacks possible at multiple points. Chinese troops frequently burrowed through the snow crest from reverse slope to forward slope. There is considerable divergence of opinion as to the use of the reverse slope for reorganization but all agree that effective measures must be taken to protect against the retaliatory artillery fire placed on the objective. The four main methods of evading this fire are: 1) Press on forward to next defiladed area. 2) Pull bulk of unit back onto reverse slope, leaving only outposts on forward slope. 3) Move bulk of unit to one flank of the objective. 4) Dig in promptly and hang on until dark. Ridge position lee vs. windward, i.e. yin and yang. Lee/yin being side enemy can not see you. Windward/yang being the side they can see you. On the Lee side enemy can’t see you as well to keep tabs on you, but you can’t see them either, so surprise is in there favor. Your defensive weapons are only effective out to the range of the ridge crest. It well be tricky for enemy to cross crest, but once over he will be on down hill slope. Nether you or them can use direct fire weapons or adjust indirect fire weapons as well. Windward side now both can see each other better. Defensive small arms are now effective to max range. Enemy must attack up hill, both you and them can use direct fire weapons and adjust indirect fire better. Defense now has ridge crest to use for cover during FPF i.e. unit can retreat to opposite side as strong point. You choose yin or yang side, based on size of forces and types of weapons available to both sides, mission and nature of the terrain: Degree of enemy observation depends on hour of the day. Reverse ridge/corner tactic, this is positioning a few on one side, many on other. Also used with corners of buildings or intersections. Works two ways, if few attacked many over whelm attacker. If many attacked few maneuver and surprise enemy. The crossing of a linier valley and assault of a well defended ridge are similar to the forging of a river. The purpose of crossing a small unit is to establish a foot hold, to protect crossing of larger unit. (See rule # 13 in PCP section, which is next). A Platoon had the resources to defend in depth. A Platoon Commander could commit two of his Squads to the main line, placing his third to provide cover fire or deal with any breach of the position. However defense in depth truly begins with the Rifle Company. A Company would normally occupy a frontage of at least two Platoons, with the third held as reserve. It was not uncommon though for the situation to demand the Company defend a line in length rather than depth. This was a particularly unappealing prospect, as it gave the Commander little way of responding to a breach into his position. In a normal defensive position though, the Company would adopt a horseshoe style stance, with two Platoons placed forward, and the third again adopting a reserve role. It would be placed between and to the rear of the forward units. Conducting the defense in depth gave the Company a greater chance of repelling the assault.

Glacier bivouac procedures, when locating a bivouac site where the team well un-rope, "probe" the area for hidden crevasses. The probe pole, at least eight feet in length. Other rope team members will belay the probers. Probers are "feeling" for a solid platform to place the tent. Probing should be in 2-foot intervals in all directions within the site. Attempts to outline crevasses can be futile if a crevasse is large. Normally, the best decision is to relocate. Mark boundaries of site with wands or other items. Snow walls are constructed to protect the tent from storms with high winds. At a minimum, build walls on the windward side of the site. The walls should be slightly higher than the tent. Walls can be constructed from blocks cut from consolidated snow layers. In deep snow, digging three or four feet to find a consolidated layer will result in enough snow moved to build up decent walls around the site. Cut blocks approximately 1 by 1 by 2 feet, and construct the walls by interlocking the blocks with overlapping placements. Notes snow must be at least 10 inches thick to provide insulation form cold. Bare earth has at least a 50 degrees temperature due to thermal heat, this is true any where on earth.



Preparations and conduct of patrols

1) Check your perimeter;
This is around area, buildings, camp, room or vehicle, before leaving or exiting. You’re looking for enemy in waiting or signs of activity past or present. With sub terrain entries point man inters and waits just inside for 10 minutes to check air. Should remain farther ahead during patrols too. Debark subs in pairs in case buddy breathing is necessary due to malfunction of equipment, and pair up any time operating in water. Patrols should never leave base from an out post especially under snow conditions. Least they leave tracks back to post. A number of patrols may be deployed to 'screen' a large area, for instance with armored formations in desert theatres or infantry in MOUT. Maneuvering units can use sounds of battle and guns for guidance i.e. as means of staying within range of objective.

DOG TRACKING TEAMS; Dog is trained not to bark. The dog can be used to locate sentries or determine the extent of emplacements and may assist in positioning troops for an ambush, without being detected by enemy. A great many insurgents wounded in ambushes get away. The tracker group should not form part of the ambush party, but should stand by at RP ready to move when the ambush has been sprung. While small and lightly armed, they increase the area a security unit can search. When looking for sniper teams, trolling along roads or intersections is a favorite tactic of tracking teams. Trackers also use wood line sweeps and area searches. Since wood line sweeps tend to be less specific, trackers perform them faster. A wood line sweep if the wind is blowing through the woods and out of the wood line, trackers move 50 to 100 meters inside a wooded area. Wind direction determines whether the sweep will be parallel to the edge, as well as outside or 50 to 100 meters inside the wood line. If the search is started up wind of your position, searches well move away from you. The best position for the dog team is directly in front of the patrol/stick i.e. search team. The stick can track visually from the flanks, and the dog and handler well guide. If the stick loses the signs, then the dog can take over. An area search is used when a search location is specific such as a small wooded area or block of houses. The search area is cordoned off, if possible, and the dog/handler teams are brought on line, about 25 to 150 meters apart, depending on terrain and visibility. The handler hides behind cover with the dog. He searches for movement and then sends the dog out in a straight line. The handler may control the dog with whistles, gestures or voice commands that maybe transmitted to speaker on dog’s collar. He remains undercover, directing the dog in a search pattern. Usually, when the dog has moved about 50 to 75 meters, the handler calls the dog back. The handier then moves slowly forward and always from covered position to covered position. The search line moves forward with each dog dashing back and forth in assigned sectors. Fight or flight? Eliminating or injuring the dog or handler only confirms that there is a hostile in the area. One dog can be dealt with relatively easy with a knife or large club. Dogs are quick and will try to strike the throat, groin or limbs. The sniper must keep low and strike upward using the wrist, never overhand. (lie down with your arms bear hugging your own neck). If alone and faced with two or more dogs, avoid this situation. Dogs are so reliable that if the dog does not return immediately, the handler knows something is wrong. The handlers rely on radios and often do not have visual contact with each other. So the sniper team may have the opportunity to eliminate the handler and to escape the search net. The best time is as the dog is recalled. If a handler is eliminated after he has released the dog, but before he has recalled it, the dog continues to randomly search out and away from the handler for several minutes. The dog may return to another handler or to his former handler's last position. This creates a gap from 25 to 150 meters wide in the search pattern. The eliminated handler will probably be quickly missed from the radio net. Response times by other searchers tends to be fast.
Climatic factors favorable to scenting conditions: Air and ground temperatures approximately the same. Dull, damp weather. A dog can track faster than a man, and it can track at night. The dogs will track well at night, in the early mornings and late evenings. Under the most favorable conditions, it will be quite feasible to follow tracks up to 24 hours old. Some dogs can (depending on weather and wind) sense the target two hundred meters away. The dog will normally follow the freshest track, but he will, if “given the scent” from personal clothing or belongings, discriminate and follow the scent of that particular quarry. Even scent of disturbed vegetation caused by man’s passing.
Climatic factors adverse to scenting conditions: Hot sun, strong winds, heavy rains, tarmac roads, rock and other hard surfaces. Dust and running water. Dogs are attracted quickly to and distracted by movement. Dogs are as sensitive to the elements as humans. It should be realized that dogs tire easily, and therefore they should only be used for tracking when visual tracking becomes very difficult or impossible. If the tracks become visible once more visual tracking should be resumed to conserve the dog’s strength and con¬centration. Dogs pant, make other noises, and are smelly. They also crap and piss. Patrols tend to expect the dog to perform miracles and relax their alertness. Counters available to the sniper team. NOTE; sniper teams should always operate in the counter tracking mode. Hides located in woodpiles, never establish a position at the edge of cover and concealment. Surround the site with a 3-cm to 5-cm band of motor oil to mask odor; although less effective but easier to carry, garlic may be used. A dead animal can be used, although it may attract unwanted wild canine attention. It is critical to try to obscure or limit tracks around the hide. Try to approach the position on hard, dry ground or along a stream or river. Remain as faraway from the targets area as possible. Urinate in streams or rivers or in a hole and cover it up. Never urinate in the same spot. With feces use MRE bags sealed with tape (melting fold) and take it with you. Carry all trash until it can be buried elsewhere. Think like the dog, they think in scent pictures not in images. The dog is trained to avoid baits, or cover odors used to throw it off the ‘track. You can try traveling in increasing circles, zigzag, or figure 8. Switch modes of transportation bike, skates, use short removable bridges, swing threw tress like Tarzan, all set up prior to being needed. Use stilts with single or multiple i.e. tripod base. Plank, pole or magic carpet walking, a Plank, pole or carpet is walked over then placed back out in front of you again. Turning up earth to cover scent, dampen surface of soil. Carefully disguising your own scent with grass or earth. Try to smell like local animals, especially females, furs raped around shoes. Save piss, shit, yours and animals etc. piss on your souls, two scents one shoe on one off. Lure techniques, a string anchored to you i.e. hold on to it, with cloth tide to end that is flung out in some direction then dragged back. Might be flung back over your actual tracks to re-scent them. Bottle rolled down hills, bottle tethered on long rope bragged behind you, filled with piss etc. Broaden your scent by rolling down hills, use poll with cloth tide to end. Laundry and sponge bath water minus any detergent placed in container with holes then tide to rope and swung overhead etc. Balloons with some item for scent, placed inside. Build a catapult or slingshot and or fling your fecal matter around Ha! Ha! Ha! The stench/irritant agent, tear gas CS, powder or pepper spray, substances laced with ammonia, plants that cause sneezing or etching. All placed on your tracks. Sounds to distract or cause pain too. Scorched earth, burning fields etc. Starting fires in area well quickly overwhelm dog’s senses. Piping your scent through tubing?
2) Dominate eye closed;
This is around actual or possible light sources at night. So when such a light goes out you still have night vision with dominate/shooting eye. Look only obliquely at sudden flares or headlights. Use dim red lighting before night operations. Red light and or lens exposure for 20 minutes, then closed, this to charge pupils. Wear sunglasses if you are going to spend time in the sun. Adequate levels of Vitamin A can help. Night vision takes 30 minutes to recover after red light exposure. Two weeks to adapt to high altitude. In addition, people’s eyes adapt at varying rates. People who are older, people who smoke (not smoking four to six hours before can help), or people who may not be in great physical shape will take longer. Twilight Vision; It occurs at dawn and dusk, down to full moonlight. During night operations around artificial illumination in cities and when driving around in a car at night. It also occurs when snow is on the ground at night. Even in the daytime under double layers of jungle canopy. Due to the lower light levels at dawn, dusk, and full moon conditions, your visual acuity is poorer. Visual acuity can be as poor as 20/100. In fact, the best visual acuity you can hope to obtain under twilight conditions is between 20/50 and 20/100. You also have poorer color vision. You can still see colors but they won't be as vivid. You also have slower reaction times because of the reduced lighting levels. Night Vision; Occurs under starlight, as well as on moonless and cloudy nights when there are no stars or cultural lighting. Acuity-from 20/200 to 20/400 and possibly much worse. You can recognize silhouettes, but not the details of the objects. With night vision, the longer wavelengths of light, such as the reds and oranges, are hard to see and will appear dark. Unless a dark color is bordered by two lighter colors, it becomes totally invisible. Reds will be almost invisible at night. The reason red crosses are on white backgrounds on tents or vehicles is so they can be seen more easily at night. On the other hand, greens and blues will appear brighter, although you may not be able to determine their color. Test for dominate eye; you focus on an object, three feet out in front of you. Extend one of your hands and line up one finger with object. Then close one eye at a time. When finger appears to have shifted to one side of the object, you have just closed your dominate eye.
Field of view with vision, 60 degrees normal, 90 peripheries, 6 degrees focused.

3) Knees slightly bent;
By standing with your knees slightly bent, you have quicker reaction time when ducking for cover. It also reminds you to keep swaying, moving around in general, as an Anti sniper tactic. It may just cause sniper to pick someone else. Note; here I have chosen to place most of my sniper notes. Sniper detection, the first warning that troops had been targeted could come from the unmistakable report of a rifle, and the sight of a man stopping as if halted by an invisible hand before falling to the ground. In general units should look for increase in single shot casualties.
To ensure their own stealth, the sniper needs to change appearance of ghillie suit when entering buildings. Changing positions to avoid detection. Snipers choose next position before repositioning i.e. moving, studies route etc. Policing his area for any evidence lift behind. Snipers do not choose roofs or top floors. They well be located one or two floors down. In trees when snipers are tied to post to steady aim, they will not fall from post to confirm kill. Snipers also can be found in trenches and under concrete slabs, these slabs can be raised with car jacks. Will position themselves between large units, to cause blue on blue shootings. They do not like to shoot at groups. Sniper’s radio more deadly than his rifle. Snipers well call in fire on structures to flush out targets. Sniper counter measures include artillery or mortar and or air strikes. This ensures they well not choose positions too close to their own infantrymen who well not be thankful for such attention. Snipers can be used to delay the enemies’ pursuit during your retreat. When facing an enemy on the move, inevitably towards him snipers operate in an opportune manner. A lone sniper can effectively pin down a whole Rifle Platoon as they try to advance. Unlike in a defensive action, the troops have to break cover at some point if they are to take ground. To be truly effective, the sniper would seek to engage the enemy in an area where he had cover, but they were forced to operate in the open. Sniper’s target analysis, the uncomfortable thing about the sniper is the deliberation taken before a kill. Ordinary riflemen took aim and fired just the same, perhaps picking their targets in order of the threat they posed. What was, and remains, unique to the sniper was his ability not to shoot a particular target. First rule choose targets carefully, what counts is who you kill. After taking time and trouble to secure a good position, don’t 'waste' perhaps your only shot on a lowly private if there is a chance of an officer showing up. Choose targets based on their location within units, special equipment/gear enemy has on them. Priorities: other snipers, dog teams, Officers, communications, optical equipment and operators. Crew served weapons and operators, direct fire weapons in MOUT, machine gunners may hold their weapon down to look more like regular riflemen. Tank commanders and scouts. Once shooting starts sniper shoots moving targets first. Snipers well wait till paths of merging targets (i.e. targets walking towards one another) cross to shoot. And well closely monitor exits. Snipers staking out likely points i.e. windows where targets may expose themselves. Note as a result of this deliberation on targets, snipers were not normally praised. A British officer recounted the rebuke he received from his Sergeant after shooting dead an unsuspecting German busy combing his hair; 'Are you satisfied now you've killed him?' The only certainty is that when a sniper of any nationality opens fire, the same two thoughts goes through the minds of the men under attack. One is spoken, the other concealed; Where is he? Am I next? Lethal circle formed by eyes, nose and mouth. Vital areas neck, heart, stomach, liver, kidneys, spinal column. With heart shot, body can function 10-12 seconds, round placed behind ear lobe well cut brain stem. AKA the Apricot. From front view aiming point lower lip. Shooting at units; first shot to hip of the point men. A sniper should use a standard setting (dope) on sights for 500 meters, target closer aim low, this for quicker shots at moving targets. Snipers avoid constant sun on one side of rifle barrel and cold wet ammo, cold wet = low shot, hot dry = high shot. Hot air is thinner i.e. less denser than cold.
CROWS common remotely operated weapons system/stations gun turret multi mm weapons 5.56 – 40mm. Fiber optics gyros telescopic boom? Accurate to 500 yards 2’ target single shot/sniper mode less accurate on auto. Camera jump computer control can help with auto engage system and while on the move. Boomerage/boomerang? Jacks/ spike design. Shot location system gives autoable and texts message, a top compos within 1-2 seconds system works with vehicle up to 60 mph and at range of ¼ mile from weapons, bullet most pass with in 30 meters of mikes for best results. SP 12/11/08 the army ordered over 9,000 CROWS but for a while could only get 15 a month. By the end of 2006, there were about a thousand in service. Possible counters to system; hot loaded blanks, burst of fire at a distance but along same azimuth as closer sniper, farther shot first and after closer shot. Also fire from area of max echo, Example surrounding area (L) shaped to misdirect echo. Muffle sound with altitude i.e. shooting form dominate or at least very high position. Down loaded ammo stays subsonic. Quieter but close range headshot necessary for kill. Bolt-action so ejection not hard or seen. With silencers noise from bolt action and ejections still make noises. In WW 2 sniper Viselli Zeitsev recorded 137 kills in one mouth, an average of four per day. Sniper term “pink mist”.

Note: with the fallowing rule 4/5 the detailed notes for the rules 4 and 5 became so similar; I decided to combine the rules. I did not renumber due to the personal difficulty of retaining a new numerical order of rules.

4/5) Everything taped, tied, strapped down:
Pre-operations Inspections (POIs). Get "eyes-on" accountability of critical items. Units should perform functions checks of all devices and weapons.
Load Plans, units normally have basic load plans for vehicles, trailers, containers and packs. Adherence to load plans can assist in POIs by providing an orderly array of equipment for inspection.
The fighting load for a properly conditioned Marine should not exceed 48 lbs; the approach/force march load should not exceed 72 lbs; the weights include all clothing and equipment, either worn or carried.

All gear on all troops organized in same manner, to make it easy to locate items on someone else in emergency or at night.

Packs;
Packs come in many sizes and should be sized appropriately for the individual according to manufacturer's specifications. Every Marine should keep a Bug out bag, packed with enough kit for a few days. Placed for grab and go in emergency. Policing the ground; anything not being used is repacked; you are ready to go at a moments notice. Packs often come with many unneeded features. A good rule of thumb is: the simpler the pack, the better it will be.
The two most common packs are internal and external framed.

Internal framed packs have a rigid frame within the pack that helps it maintain its shape and hug the back with the weight carried low; this assists the climber in keeping their balance. The body-hugging nature also makes it uncomfortable in warm weather.
External framed packs suspend the load away from the back (so air circulates). The frame transfers weight to hips and shoulders, but can be cumbersome when balance is needed for climbing and skiing. Belly straps keep loads from swaying.

Speed and endurance are enhanced if the load is carried more by the hips (using the waist belt) and less by the shoulders and back. This is preferred for movement over trails or less difficult terrain. By packing the lighter, more compressible items (sleeping bag, clothing) in the bottom of the rucksack and the heavier gear (stove, food, water, rope, climbing hardware, extra ammunition) on top, nearer the shoulder blades, the load is held high and close to the back, thus placing the most weight on the hips. In rougher terrain it pays to modify the pack plan. Heavy articles of gear are placed lower in the pack and close to the back, placing more weight on the shoulders and back. This lowers the climber's center of gravity and helps him to better keep his balance. Equipment that may be needed during movement should be arranged for quick access using either external pockets or placing immediately underneath the top flap of the pack.

The pack and its contents should be waterproofed. Zip-lock plastic bags can be used for small items, which are then organized into color-coded bags. A few extra-large plastic garbage bags should be carried for a variety of uses spare waterproofing, emergency bivouac shelter, and water procurement, among others.

Kit sanitized of identification i.e. remove all markings. All buckles, flaps, laces, & straps secured. Fins tided together with water ops, gloves in winter too. So you don’t loose. Inserts and liners not worn by themselves or they may wear out quicker. Trigger inserts fit either hand, should be changed to opposite hand frequently to ensure even wearing.

Check gear for noises by jumping up and down. Use rubber mallet to find rattles with vehicles or equipment.

Loose items should be taped, tied or raped in cloths when placed in bags/pockets. Canteens and pockets should be kept full or empty. This keeps water from sloshing. Once canteen opened, use all the water, pass it around if necessary.

With vehicles small fires under engine blocks or gearboxes. Petrol poured into gearboxes. A number of vehicles kept on stand by with engines running or started hourly. Hot water from running vehicle drained into other vehicles to start with.
Equipment can be hauled on a sled aka Ahkio (in winter).

For patrols equipment must be checked and loads evenly distributed.

Sleds vary greatly in size, from the squad-size Ahkio, a component of the 10-man arctic tent system, to the one-person skow. Regardless of the size, sleds are an invaluable asset during mountainous operations when snow and ice is the primary surface on which to travel. Whichever sled is chosen, it must be attachable to the patrol members that will be pulling it. Most sleds are constructed using fiberglass bottoms with or without exterior runners. Runners will aid the sleds ability to maintain a true track in the snow. The sled should also come with a cover of some sort whether nylon or canvas to keep load dry. Packing the sled, take great care especially when hauling fuel. Heavier items are carried towards the stern and lighter items towards the front.

Stoves, when selecting one must define its purpose i.e. for heating, cooking or both? When choosing a stove, factors that should be considered are weight, altitude and temperature where it will be used, fuel availability, and its reliability. They should be easy to clean and repair during an operation. White gas, kerosene, and butane are the common fuels used. All stoves require a means of pressurization to force the fuel to the burner. Stoves that burn white gas or kerosene have a hand pump and butane stoves have pressurized cartridges. All stoves need to vaporize the liquid fuel before it is burned. This can be accomplished by burning a small amount of fuel in the burner cup assembly, which will vaporize the fuel in the fuel line. Fire Starter material is key to igniting wet wood for emergency campfires. Candles, heat tabs, and canned heat all work. In alpine zones above tree line with no available firewood, a stove works as an emergency heat source. Matches and Lighter. Lighters are handy for starting fires, but they should be backed up by matches stored in a waterproof container with a strip of sandpaper.

Fuel, batteries (frozen the damage is to their plates. Remove batteries store in warm room or boxes). A dry cell battery at 0 degrees Fahrenheit is about 40% of the power it would have at room temp.




New images 7/07/11 10:00 hours

Water, food, POWER BARS: The MRE is too big and produces too much trash for most combat situations. The military needs to reissue something like the old "D rations" of WWII, basically a compressed food bar (bran, nuts, raisins, whatever) that can provide 400-600 calories and keep a Marine moving for a few more hours. Unlike the MRE which is tedious to open and consume, a Marine could simply rip the wrapper off, eat it in three bites, and keep moving.
Extensive first aid kits, climbing equipment i.e. extra ropes and extra ammunition or demolition materials, if needed. List of more MT. equipment; oxygen tanks, aneroid barometer, rope, snap rings, pitons (rock spikes), block and tackle, winches, hammer for difficult rock climes, ice ax, (if not carried in hand, should be stowed on the outside of pack with the spike up and the adze facing forward or to the outside) crampons (can be secured to the outside stern of the pack with the points covered).
Snow Saw; used to cut into ice and snow. It can be used in step cutting, in shelter construction, for removing frozen obstacles, and for cutting snow stability test pits. The special tooth design of the snow saw easily cuts into frozen snow and ice. The blade is a rigid aluminum alloy of high strength about 3 mm thick and 38 cm long with a pointed end to facilitate entry on the forward stroke.
Snow Shovel; the snow shovel is used to cut and remove ice and snow. It can be used for avalanche rescue, shelter construction, step cutting, and removing obstacles. The handle should be telescopic, folding, or removable to be compact when not in use.
Wands; are used to identify routes, crevasses, snow-bridges, caches, and turns on snow and glaciers. Spacing of wands depends on the number of turns, number of hazards identified, weather conditions (and visibility), and number of teams in the climbing party. Carry too many wands is better than not having enough if they become lost. Wands are 1 to 1.25 meters long and made of lightweight bamboo or plastic shafts pointed on one end with a plastic or nylon flag (bright enough in color to see at a distance) attached to the other end.
Wind proof outer garment, have protection against sun too. Sunglasses, sun block and lip protection, Sunscreens should have an SPF factor of 15 or higher. For lip protection, a total UV blocking lip balm that resists sweating, washing, and licking is best. This lip protection should be carried in the chest pocket or around the neck to allow frequent reapplication.
In extreme cold canteen raped and placed in pack close to back. Use warm water, never over 2/3 full. To allow for expansion, if it dose freeze, open & allow to thaw slowly. Check for leaks. Squeeze air from the repellent container and screw the cap on firmly. In cold weather it’s a good idea to carry cough drops. For warmth, you can place a rock near fire. Then rap it in cloth, it’s carried like hot water bottle. IMO this would be used more at night i.e. warm pillow aid. In winter gasmask upon removal, any excess moisture wiped off immediately. Of no use in protecting against frost bite in fact the opposite is true. Helmets will be restricted to static ops. Helmet under windy conditions well cause more noise.

MOUT Equipment; axes, crowbars, stun grenades. Sub-terrain eq. Chalk for marking routes. The glow from the face of a compus, glint or thermal strips, glow sticks, even a peace of decaying wood can be used for I.D. and location of bubs in your patrol. Located on heel or under collar of Marine in front of you. Glowing items always held away from head or chest. Used on night operations too.
KNEE PADS; Extended physical activity tends to cause the pads to slip, and tightening the straps cuts off circulation. The overall impression is that knee pads are worth using but elbow pads just get in the way. Knee pads during the winter make life easier. If you need to suddenly take a knee to fire, you won’t be squeamish about planting one in the snow or onto a hidden rock. It will also keep your knee dry and let you stay kneeling for an extended period of time with very little knee fatigue, plus there is added protection in case of a fall.
RADIOS; allow fewer men to cover more ground, and still be able to move to support each other. While these would lack encryption, the odds that a given enemy would have the type of radio to intercept these transmissions, happen to speak English, understand another unit's internal slang, and be able to use the information in the few seconds he would have, is extremely low.

Two new portable ladders are under testing. The Quick Stepladder folds up to 2x3 feet but extends to 14 feet long. It is carried clipped to the outside of pack. The Light Modular Ladder extends to 15 feet; a second module can be added to reach 30 feet. The system is carried inside a bag the size of a rucksack. The 30-foot length allows soldiers into third-story windows or onto the roofs of single or two-story buildings.

The Hooligan Tool is a "wedge on a handle" which can be pounded into doors with a hammer to provide leverage to break them open.

Tuff Cuffs (a new system to restrain prisoners).

Emergency survival kit containing signaling material, fire starting material, food and water procurement material. Pocket knife, whistle, pressure bandage, notebook with pen or pencil, map, compass and or altimeter.
Repair Kit; a repair kit should include: Stove tools and spare parts. Duct tape. Patches. Safety pins. Heavy-duty thread. Awl and or needles. Cord and or wire. Small pliers (if not carrying a multipurpose tool).

RIFLE SCOPES /PERISCOPES: Decades after trench periscopes were common in the trenches of Flanders, the US military has no such item in its inventory. A simple $75 rubberized system would allow a good field of view around corners, into windows, and over obstacles. One should be issued to each squad.
LASER RANGEFINDERS: civilian $ 350 (designed for hunters, building contractors, and other uses). These can accurately determine distances up to 1000m. With such a device, a squad leader could quickly lay out the range cards. In concert with the GPS and compass one could radio precise target information on enemy patrols too close to his position for normal artillery (with its fire-and-adjust procedure) to engage. (The unit's mortars, also equipped with GPS, could do so far more safely, quickly, and effectively.)

Uniforms, guerillas often use system where a simple, color or item scarf/shirt etc is worn a certain way. That can be hidden or discarded quickly. Also members may switch articles of clothing from time to time to disguise individuals identification. (Guerilla tattoos between thumb & index finger I love you (is that in English?)

Layered principle: the Layers are of different material, wool under layer very porous, Modern Wick-a-way cloth material that lets moisture evaporate away from body but not towards it. Wicker material designed with an increasing number of strans in the layers as you get farther away from the body. Also a chemical posse to make the non absorbent man made material become absorbent.
Gore-Tex; its waterproof, and lets the moisture from the body evaporate. It only works when it's clean. Dirt, sweat, and oil if allowed to build up, clog up i.e. block the gaps in the weave and trap moisture in. Polypropylene is a good but expensive set of thermal underwear. It wicks moisture away from the body. Polar fleece will do this too. It is possible to break out in a sweat, remaining completely dry, and have a layer of ice on your back while still being warm in this combination.
Outer layer should be water resistant, if last layer water proof it well freeze over. Light weight lose outer layer, to trap warm air along side. Layering permits rapid adjustment of clothes over wide range of activity & temperatures. With out the modern materials one must avoid sweating! Even with modern materials if deployed for long periods. Best to be slightly chilly than too warm. Remove cloths accordingly head, hands and feet are good vents. When in doors wear as little clothing as possible. Clean cloths are warmer then dirty, also dirty well be more flammable. Friendly and enemy forces supplementing the layers of their uniforms with those of the dead. Corps striped of over coats, boots particularly Russian felt boats best for snow conditions, also lambskin cap. Wearing enemy uniforms or items there is a danger of being shot by friendly forces. Contrasting gear like web shouldn’t be warn on outside of snow whites. Solid whites will loose effectiveness. Special care taken when handling sooty stoves or digging holes. You may not won’t to wear. Under wet winter conditions -13 degrees or up. Moisture soaks in from inside and outside due to melting show and ice. During the spring rains & autumn’s alternating day thawing and night freezing protection against cold and moisture i.e. humidity and wet brush etc. is needed, by summer insects are a problem too. Clothing and foot gear to tight well restrict blood flow and invite cold enjoy. Wearing to many pairs of socks is not a good idea. Feet should be massaged when changing. A dry pair of socks is always carried. Socks can be hung on out side of pack on the move for drying. Dry items in shade if you can. Drying by fire, items hung close to ceiling, dry leather slowly. Do not place items down wind of fires because of smell and sparks. Never left unattended! Woolens do not boil or use hot water. In desert stay fully clothed even on cloudy days.
Recall acronym, C.O.L.D. Clean clothes, avoid Overheating, Layers, Dry.
EXTREME COLD WEATHER CLOTHING SYSTEM
Outer Layers; ECWCS the jacket and pants are made of a durable waterproof fabric. Both have a nylon shell with a laminated breathable membrane attached. This allows the garment to release moisture while the nylon shell provides a degree of water resistance during rain and snow. The nylon also acts as a barrier to wind, which helps retain warm air trapped by the insulating layers.
Insulating Layers; are those layers worn over the underwear and under the outer layers of clothing. They should provide for easy moisture movement as well as trap warm air. The insulating layers that are presently available are referred to as pile or fleece. ECWCS incorporates the field jacket and field pants liner as additional insulating layers. However, these two components do not move moisture as effectively as the pile or fleece. Cotton layers must not be included in any layer in an extreme cold environment.
Underwear; Underwear should also be made of materials that move moisture from the body. Many civilian companies manufacture this type of underwear. The primary material in this product is polyester, which moves moisture from the body to the outer layers. A lightweight set of long underwear coupled with a heavyweight set will provide a multitude of layering combinations.
Headgear; 25 % of heat loss occurs through the head and neck area. Very important to wear a hat i.e. Black watch cap of natural fibers, predominately wool. For colder climates a neck gaiter can be added. It is a tube that fits around the neck and can reach up over the ears and nose. For extreme cold, a balaclava can be added. This covers the head, neck, and face leaving only a slot for the eyes (Figure 3-5). Worn together the combination is very warm.

Photo edited
Figure 3-5 Neck gaiter and balaclava

Helmets; the Kevlar ballistic helmet can be used for most basic mountaineering tasks. It must be fitted with parachute retention straps and the foam impact pad.
SP 12/20/08 in 2007 the Indian firm Anjani Technoplast, came up with some innovative protective vest technologies, a new fiber (Dyneema HB26) which is 15 % lighter, 40 % stronger than aramid (Kevlar) fibers, floats, and is more resistant to sunlight, moisture and chemicals. Helmets made of it are 20 % lighter than the Kevlar ones, and more resistant to bullets. It's also likely that the new generation of U.S. armored trucks (the hummer replacement) will use Dyneema HB26, which will lower fuel consumption and strain on the suspension and other vehicle components.
Headlamps; it is common to need a light source and the use of both hands. A flashlight can provide light, but can be cumbersome when both hands are needed. Most headlamps attach to helmets by means of elastic bands. Ensure it is waterproof and the battery is small and is compatible with the supplies available. Most lights will accept alkaline, nickel-cadmium, or lithium batteries. Alkaline battery life diminishes quickly in cold temperatures, nickel-cadmium batteries last longer in cold but require a recharging unit, and lithium batteries have twice the voltage so modifications are required. When the light is being packed, care should be taken that the switch doesn't accidentally activate and use precious battery life. Also while on patrols to eliminate accidental activation.
Eye gear; glacier glasses and goggles. Glacier glasses are sunglasses that cover the entire eye socket. They should be antifogging. Double or triple lenses work best. Many operations in the mountains occur above the tree line or on ice and snow surfaces where the harmful UV rays of the sun can bombard the eyes from every angle increasing the likelihood of snow blindness. At least one extra pair should be carried by each climbing team.
Ballistic eye protection: Simple sports glasses with polycarbonate lenses actually work better, and take up no more space than a normal pair of glasses.
Super ears: Powered by four batteries, they block out sharp loud sounds (e.g., rifle shots), allow normal conversation to pass unaffected, and enhance small sounds such as footsteps, whispers, and the crunching of leaves and twigs. These cost $130 each. SilversonicXL lessen up type device that is worn around ear. Also product called lesson up.
Electronic ear protection, that can allow troops to hear normally, when sound levels are normal, but block out very loud noises. Equipment like this is already available for those who maintain jet engines, and other loud equipment (like tanks).
Foot gear; socks provide cushioning, remove excess moisture, and provide insulation from cold temperatures. Improper wear and excess moisture are the biggest causes of hot spots and blisters. Regardless of climatic conditions, socks should always be worn in layers. The first layer should be a material that moves moisture from the foot surface to the outer sock. The outer sock should also be made of like materials, but should be complimented with materials that provide cushioning and abrasion resistance. A third layer can be added depending upon the climatic conditions. In severe wet conditions, a waterproof type sock can be worn over the first two layers to reduce the amount of water that would saturate the foot. In extremely cold conditions a vapor barrier sock can be worn either over both of the original pairs of socks or between the whicker layer and the insulating layer. If the user is wearing VB boots, the vapor barrier sock is not needed.
Old socks can be pulled over boats for camouflage. Boots souls can be painted with white non-glossy paint. Chicken wire can be tied around boots for traction in sewers.
Currently, CTA 50-900 provides adequate footwear for most operations in mountainous terrain. In temperate climates a combination of footwear is most appropriate to accomplish all tasks. The two types of footwear needed are climbing shoes and plastic mountaineering boots. (1) Climbing shoes are made specifically for climbing vertical or near vertical rock faces. These shoes are made with a soft leather upper, a lace-up configuration, and a smooth "sticky rubber" sole. The smooth "sticky rubber" sole is the key to the climbing shoe, providing greater friction on the surface of the rock, allowing the climber access to more difficult terrain. (2) The plastic mountaineering boot is a double boot system. The inner boot provides support, as well as insulation against the cold. It may or may not come with a breathable membrane. The outer boot is a molded plastic (usually with a lace-up configuration) with a lug sole. The welt of the boot is molded in such a way that crampons, ski bindings, and snowshoes are easily attached and detached.
Gaiters are used to protect the lower leg from snow and ice, as well as mud, twigs, and stones. The use of waterproof fabrics or breathable materials laminated to the nylon can also be insulated if necessary. Gaiters are not presently fielded. Gaiters are available in three styles i.e. Alpine or open toed, full randed and overboot.


Figure 3-3

The most common style of gaiter is the open-toed variety, which is a nylon shell that may or may not have a breathable material laminated to it. The open front allows the boot to slip easily into it and is closed with a combination of zipper, hook-pile tape, and snaps. It will have an adjustable neoprene strap that goes under the boot to keep it snug to the boot. The length should reach to just below the knee and will be kept snug with a drawstring and cord lock. The second type referred to as a full or randed gaiter. It completely covers the boot down to the welt. It is used with plastic mountaineering boots and should be glued in place and not removed. The third type of gaiter is specific to high-altitude mountaineering or extremely cold temperatures and is referred to as an overboot. It is worn completely over the boot and must be worn with crampons because it has no traction sole.
Crampons; (Figure 3-25) Two types: Flexible and Rigid. They should fit snugly on the boot with a minimum of 1 inch of front point protruding. Straps should fit snugly around the foot and any long, loose ends should be trimmed, any tools needed for adjustment will be provided by the manufacturer. The Flexible or hinged crampon is best used when no technical ice climbing will be done. It is designed to be used with soft, flexible boots, but can be attached to plastic mountaineering boots. The flexible crampon gets its name from the flexible hinge on the crampon itself. All flexible crampons are adjustable for length while some allow for width adjustment. Most flexible crampons will attach to the boot by means of a strap system. The Rigid crampon, does not flex. It is designed for technical ice climbing, but can be used on less vertical terrain. It can only be worn with plastic mountaineering boots. Rigid crampons will have a toe and heel bail attachment with a strap that wraps around the ankle.


Figure 3-25 Crampons
Snowshoes; offer a large displacement area on top of soft snow preventing tiresome post-holing. Still show shoeing uses 50 % more energy than regular walking.
Some snowshoes come equipped with a crampon like binding that helps in ascending steep snow and ice. Snowshoes are slower than skis, but are better suited for mixed terrain. When carrying heavy packs, snowshoes can be easier to use than skis. Skis; Mountaineering skis are wide and short. They have a binding that pivots at the toe and allows for the heel to be free for uphill travel or locked for downhill. There are Synthetic skins with fibers attached to the bottom thus allowing the ski to travel forward and prevent slipping backward. Historically with skies, animal fur was tided backwards (i.e. far lying opposite direction of travel) for traction with up hill climbing. It also aids in slowing down the rate of descents. Wax can be applied to the ski to aid in ascents instead of skins. Skis also do not provide good traction for pulling loads; again one might make use of fiber attachments or Animal fur. Wind in open areas can greatly slow skiers down.
Skis can make crossing crevasses easier because of the load distribution also a skier or a unit on skis is able to cross frozen lakes and rivers when the ice will not support a man on foot. Skis can become a makeshift stretcher for casualties. On skis Marines can be towed i.e. pulled by vehicles.
Hand gear; use of hand wear is extremely important in the mountains. Even during the best climatic conditions, temperatures can dip below freezing. While mittens are always warmer than gloves, the finger dexterity needed to do most tasks makes gloves the primary gear. Just as the clothing system is worn in layers, gloves and mittens work best using the same principle. Retention cords that loop over the wrist work extremely well when the wearer needs to remove the outer layer to accomplish a task that requires fine finger dexterity. Leaving the glove or mitten dangling from the wrist ensures the wearer knows where it is at all times.
The Ninja claw for climbing things like the phone repairman’s ankle hook on his boot.
Ski poles; assist in balance on skis or snowshoe patrols with heavy packs. Some are collapsible for ease of packing. The basket at the bottom prevents the pole from plunging deep into the snow and, on some models, can be detached so the pole becomes an avalanche or crevasse probe. Some ski poles come with a self-arrest grip, but should not be the only means of protection on technical terrain.

Remove loose snow and insects at entrances. Remove vegetation before approach to helicopters. Marines wear ear plugs during helicopter hopes to preserve hearing after exit.
If theirs little difference in inside an out side temp, weapons maybe taken into buildings and stored at floor level, where temperature is lowest. Weapons also sweat in warm vehicles. Batteries, binoculars, scopes, compos, grenades and weapons kept close to body in inter clothing, inside over coats. Keep ports and muzzles covered. Place magazines upside down in your pouches to keep out dirt and dust. Marines kept watch with hand over action/port area. Carry or handle, muzzle down during transport by helicopters. Trailing musket to keep it from being seen. Also slung over shoulder muzzle down, with sling over front part of shoulder hidden. Marine looks unarmed. Normal lubes in cold become thickened, sluggish action or stoppages results. Weapons are completely stripped, cleaned with dry solvents gasoline, alcohol and lighter fluid, only then lightly oiled. Particularly effective was sunflower seed oil. To insure smooth bolt action when no oil is used a finely ground powder is sprinkled on action. Also finely textured flour or sulfur. Check bore for obstructions before shooting i.e. work action.

On patrols cold rations only, so to illuminate the smell of cooking.

Note see Appendix PCP rule # 4/5 for more information.

6) Whisper in an exhale:
This reduces echoes inside the mouth. Voice well travel, project clearer and farther. Whispering to disguise voice i.e. eliminates voice signatures, due to the fact that you’re not using vocal cords. Gaps in teeth and other characteristics would still be present but not specific enough to ID person out of general public.

7) Extra quite at night or around water:
Sounds travel faster and farther at night or over water. Night air cooler and less surrounding noises. Still cool air of north carries much farther than in temperate zone, which lies between 23 and 53 degrees north latitude. In calm weather (no wind), air currents that may be too light to detect, can still carry sounds. Air cools in the evening and moves downhill toward the valleys. If you are moving uphill late in the day or at night, air currents will probably be moving toward you if no other wind is blowing. As the morning sun warms the air in the valleys, moves uphill. Keep the wind in your face. With the sun at your back and the wind in your face, you have a slight advantage. Wind affects sounds and odors. Determine wind direction by dropping a handful of dust or dried grass from shoulder height. By facing in the same direction the wind is blowing, one can locate sounds by cupping his hands behind his ears and turning slowly. When sounds are loudest, you are facing the origin. Swimming shallow well reduce air consumption, waves conceal noise. Stay one meter off bottom to keep from silting. When coming ashore stay flat or roll out of water. Rough bark canoes are very quite.

8) Step toe first:
This is done two apply pressure on soul of foot gradually and evenly, this also muffles noise of braking twigs. Crawling, (Monkey walk) supporting yourself with fest and placing knees where fest where. (Leopard crawl) supporting body with elbows and toes only. Esp. suited for crawling over leafs. Always lift feet high and pay close attention to avoid lose rocks on slopes and hills. Low crawl; hold the rifle sling with your thumb at the upper sling swivel, with the balance point of weapon on top of the fore-arm (ie see sawed on forearm), keeping the butt just off of the ground. Push your arms and right leg forward, then cover ground by pulling with the arms and pushing with the right leg. Keep the whole body flat, and change the pushing leg frequently to avoid fatigue. High crawl; cradle your rifle on top of your arms, with the muzzle off the ground. Proceed by alternately advancing right elbow and then left knee, then left elbow and right knee. Use short movements, keeping your knees well behind your buttocks. Keep your head and your buttocks low.

TRACKING

The best way of judging the effectiveness of a stick, (i.e. dog tracking team) is to note how often they track into contact. If constantly being fired on first, then they are only marginal. Good trackers will be able to tell how far ahead the enemy is. During assaults, trackers are too valuable to risk in a fire fight. However when crossing obstacles such as rivers, streams, roads, the tracking team becomes the security and first over (to keep any spoor on the other side undisturbed). When operating, use hand signals at all times. The Tracker: is responsible for reading and interpreting the spoor for the team leader. The flankers: these two members who are also trained trackers are responsible for the forward and flank security of the tracker and will probably see the enemy first. As the tracker becomes fatigued rotate duties so all trackers remain alert. The standard tracking formation is Y shaped, with the flankers at the ends of open legs of the Y and the tracker at the junction, with the team leader about 5 meters directly behind him. Fallow on troops can be in a column behind or in echelons to both sides in X formation. This allows the troops to move forward at once and leaves the trackers a gap to fall back through. Much of’ tracking means noting what is out of context in nature and realizing the cause. When examining spoor always keep your head slightly up and look 15 to 20 yards ahead of you. Move from sign to sign and always be sure of your last confirmed sign before you move on to the next. Make sure the print is not one of your own and keep a record of the different type prints you encounter. Plaster impressions, drawings, photos or even a copy of the soles themselves should be on record with local intelligence units. Once you identify a particular track, follow it. Target units may split up or scatter, until you are left following one set of tracks. If you have the personnel, assign tracking teams to each set of tracks. If not, pick one and run him to ground, then pick another. Try to stay with the main body, if possible. You may get lucky and nail the commander or end up following the spoor to a RP where you can am¬bush the entire unit. If you lose the spoor be patient, go back to the last positive spoor confirm and mark it. From multiple elevations conduct a quick scan. If no spoor is relocated, brief team to the nature of the searches (i.e. type and duration) to be use. Then begin searches to relocate the tracks. Types of search patterns; the most common are the cross grain, the box search and the 360-degree sweep. Cross grain method, the tracker moves laterally from the spoor either left or right about 100 meters and then doubles back toward his original line of march. Each time he turns, the tracker should advance about 50 to 75 meters forward before doubling back. If you have moved approximately 500 meters ahead of the last spoor and still cannot find the tracks, resort to the 360-degree method. 360 degree method, making ever increasing circles from last confirmed tracks. Some trackers have been known to circle as far as five kilometers from the last confirmed spoor until they cut the trail of their prey. Box method, this is boxing off all four corners of area, starting on the two sides of the spoor in direction of march. This method is best when you have enough troops for teams. Weather; all indicators well be effected by weather. Can either aid or hinder. The type of country - Savannah or Mopani forest. Things lack depth in overcast weather. The position of the sun relative to the direction of travel. The most suitable position is when one has to track towards the sun. Use the last rain or strong wind to determine timing. Rain flattens or washes litter into low lying areas and turns paper into pulp. Exposure to weather can cause food cans to rust at the opened edge; then, the rust moves toward the center. Wind dries tracks and blows litter, sticks, or leaves into prints. By recalling wind activity, one may estimate the age of tracks. Example, one may reason "the wind is calm at present, but blew hard about an hour ago. These tracks have litter in them, so they must be over an hour old." However, he must be sure that the litter was not crushed into them when the tracks were made. On windy day, sand remaining on pebbles within tracks can indicate a fresh track. There are two distinct types of spoor; ground spoor and aerial spoor. Ground spoor is normally made by a boot or foot print and aerial spoor is in the form of trampled grass, broken bushes, broken cobwebs, spider webs usually take about an hour to be replaced by the insects. Knowing spiders usually make nest in morning hours could help. Might be wiped off onto a nearby tree or bush. Ground spoor can be defined by tracking concepts: displacement, stains, litter, (poorly disciplined or untrained units may leave a trail of litter) urine and excrement, frequently indicated by house flies, mopani bees, yellow butterflies and, during the rains, dung beetles. DDD; if the target party members realize they are being followed, they may try DDD using a stream to cover tracks. Determining the difference between staining and displacement. Both terms can be applied to some indicators. For example, muddied water; displaced mud also stains the water. Muddy footgear can stain stones in streams, and algae and other water plants can be displaced by lost footing. Rocks overturned have a lighter or darker color on the opposite side. Overturned rocks take a couple of hours to dry in direct sun, longer in shade. The person entering or exiting a stream creates slide marks scuff bark off roots or footprints, stains stones or the bank, gets vegetation wet. Normally, a person or animal seeks the path of least resistance; therefore, look for departure signs in open areas with gradual sloping banks. Or where there are large overhangs of tree branches. Trails exiting streams may appear weathered by rain due to water running from clothing or equipment. This is especially true if the party exits the stream single file. The existence of a wet, weathered trail slowly fading into a dry trail indicates the trail is fresh. Displacement; takes place when anything is moved from its original position. Im¬pression of rifle butts being used as canes up steep slopes. The color of Scuff marks, scratched or chipped bark darkens with time; sap oozes, then hardens as it makes contact with the air. Chewed vegetation by persons or accompanying animals. Foliage, sticks, vines may be dragged or broken while cutting through heavy vegetation clearing a trail with a machete. Age track by the state of dryness, broken twigs and vines require about 10 hours for the pulp inside begins to turn brown. Grass blades will remain green for about a day after being broken, but after a few days turns brown. The reflection of light from grass or leaves displaced at an angle. When one walks through a field overturned leaves well now have their damp side exposed. Stones and sticks overturned, scuffed or removed from their original position, show a different color underneath. Disturbed dew drops on grass and plants will indicate passage of something within the last few hours after sunrise. Dew usually remains for about 4 hours after sunrise. Stains/spoor; a stain occurs when any substance from one organism or article is smeared or deposited on something else. When bloodstains are fresh, they are bright red. Air and sunlight first change blood to a deep ruby-red color, then to a dark brown crust as the moisture evaporates. Spatters or drops are not always on the ground; they may be smeared on leaves or twigs. Bloodstains, can determine the wound's location. If it seems to be dripping steadily, it probably came from a wound on the trunk. If it appears to be slung to the front, stern, or sides, the wound is probably in the extremity. Arterial wounds appear to pour blood at regular intervals with heart beat. If the wound is venous, the blood pours steadily. A lung wound deposits pink, bubbly, and frothy bloodstains. A bloodstain from a head wound appears heavy and slimy. Abdominal wounds often mix blood with digestive juices light in color, and has an odor (acidic?). One can determine the seriousness of the wound thus how far the victim can move unassisted. Staining can also occur when muddy footgear is dragged over grass, stones, and shrubs. Thus, staining and displacement combine. Crushed leaves may stain rocky ground that is too hard to show footprints. Roots, stones, and vines may be stained where leaves or berries are crushed by moving feet. Analyzing Footprints; a foot or shoe print is a good example of displacement. If a tracker finds the tracks of two men, this may indicate that a sniper team is operating in the area. Footprints may indicate direction, rate of movement, number, sex, and whether the individual knows he is being tracked. Or for example, a print that was left by a bare¬footed person or one with worn or frayed footgear indicates that he may have poor equipment. Rapid movement or running is apparent, if footprints are deep and with long strides, splayed out toes with toe prints deeper than heel prints, skid marks, and badly damaged vegetation. Old dried dirt, maybe from different area, stuck in treads will change print and may fall out on rocks. This dirt also indicates pass surface traveled. Prints that are deep, short, and widely spaced, with signs of scuffing and with toes splayed out indicate person is carrying a heavy load. Persons walking backward have a short, irregular stride. With an unnaturally deep toe, and soil is displaced in the direction of movement. To determine the sex study the size (women are smaller) and their toes are more splayed out than the males. Women tend to be pigeon-toed, while men walk with their feet straight ahead or pointed slightly to the outside. The stride is usually shorter than men’s. The rhythm or length of stride is a guide to where the next footprint can be found. If the stride is shorter than usual or the trail is erratic or circuitous, this may indicate walking in the dark. If particles of soil are beginning to fall into the print, or water still filling in the print is very resent. If the edges are dried and crusty, the prints are at least 1 hour old, varies with terrain. A light rain or morning dew cycles may round the edges of the print. By recalling when the last rain occurred, one can place print into a time frame. Impressions and Prints in mud will usually take about an hour to fill with water, depending on the amount of moisture in the earth. If the track is very fresh, water will not have run back into the depressions. The water will run back later, muddy water collects in new footprints in swampy ground; however, the mud settles and the water clears, normally the mud clears in about one hour, although time varies with the terrain. First of all the mud pushed up around the depression and kicked forward by the foot leaving the ground will begin to dry. If the tracks are pock¬marked, they were obviously made before a heavy rain and, if not pock-marked, they were made after the rain. Note look to see if the tracks were pock-marked by water dripping from trees. Determining Key Prints; the last individual in the file usually leaves the clearest footprints; these become the key prints. Cut a stick matching length of the prints and notch it to indicate the width at the widest part of the sole. Then study the angle of the key prints for the direction of march. Look for an identifying mark or feature i.e. worn or frayed footwear, to help identify the key prints. If the trail becomes vague, erased, or merges with another, use key prints to ID unit. To count the total individuals being tracked use the box technique. There are two methods to employ it. The most accurate is to use the stride as a unit of measure. Draw a line from the key print heel across the trail. Then move forward to the key print of the opposite foot and draw a line through its instep. This well form a box to analyze with the drawn lines forming two sides, and the edges of the trail forming the others. This method is accurate for counting up to 18 persons. 36-inch box method; if key prints are not evident. Measure a 36 inches long cross section the edges of the trail as the sides of the box. Count each indentation or partial print in the box and dividing by two. This method gives an estimate it is not as accurate as the stride measurement. Should you discover a resting place, count the places on the ground and no matter what the number, add two and report that number. Troops carrying loads set down at halts make indentions like box edges, crushed grass and twigs can help to identify the load. A reclining soldier also flattens the vegetation. Look for cigarette butts. A number of them in one place with evidence of only one person in the immediate area could give time table of halt. Check the campfire’s heat. Wild life; there are many paths in the bush made by game during their nightly or seasonal movements. These animals avoid steep or slippery slopes and therefore game paths will normally provide easy going. Patrols can use these trails when quick, silent movement is required. Flushed from their natural habitat, animals and birds are another example of displacement. Most wild creatures are shy of man and will seek shelter if he has been in the area. Listen for animals snorting or running and note the direction. The Grey Loerie when disturbed will utter a loud and drawn out “g-way” call, and often follows the intruder, thus alarming the quarry or warning the tracker. The honey guide bird and ox-pecker both have the same “give away” effect on both quarry and tracker. Squashed animal or insect life and whether it has been attacked by ants, location of ant mound would be advantageous to note. Changes in the normal life of insects disturbed bees, ant holes uncovered and Tom spider webs, often spun across open areas, trails. If one does not avoid these webs, he leaves an indicator. Game Tracks; most animals lie up during the day and move about at night. Animal prints superimposed on the spoor will tell you that the spoor was made prior to nightfall. If human prints have a double set of animal spoor superimposed and spoor shows that the game has moved in both directions, the human prints are probably at least 24 hours old. If the animal spoor show that game has moved in one direction only, then the human prints were probably made during the night after the game had moved down to water but before the game moved back. The reverse is also applicable; if you see the spoor on the animal prints, the spoor was made sometime after sunrise.

9) Walk single file:
Reduces number of tracks, but causes them to be deeper. Tracks grater problem in desert snow or mud. With later you can spread out a breast and zigzag across open areas. Concentrate on getting away from rivers and wet land or open areas quickly after crossing. With snow move just before or during fresh snow fall. For short distance you can roll and also in desert. Change direction in tall grass frequently. Movement in a strait line will cause unnatural weaving. Your foot could be swept/dragged back over grass before applying pressure on foot. Thus pressing grass down in opposite direction to travel.

COUNTERTRACKING
Main goal is to expose the tracker in the open, where he dose not what to spend much time studying tracks. When being tracked the best bet is to either try to outdistance tracker or to double back and ambush the group.
Fishhook; used to double back on your own trail in an over watch position to ambush pursuers. The size of the pursuing force dictates the chances of success. If the pursuing force is too large to be destroyed, the sniper team strives to eliminate the tracker. (Note Refer to next rule number 10, Don’t back track)

FIGURE
The sniper team may use the frequently used and or the least used routes to cover its movement. Frequently Used Routes; travel on railways, roads merging with civilians. Least Used Routes; avoid all man-made trails or roads. Least used routes are normally magnetic azimuths between two points. Reduction of spoor; moving on hard-surfaces or rocky ground. Changing footgear, wrap footgear with rags. Wear the same boots as the enemy, if you are operating in his territory. Brush out the trail. This is rarely done without leaving signs (best just before rains). A sniper who tries to hide his trail moves at reduced speed; sniper secures area, scopes target area, spotter hides tracks, scouts routes. Backward Walking; walking backward in tracks already made, and then stepping off the trail onto terrain or objects that leave little sign. Use this technique when leaving or entering a stream. Large Tree; a good deception tactic is to change directions at large trees (Figure 8-7). Walk past a large tree (12 inches wide or larger) for 5 to 10 paces. Carefully walk backwards to the forward/lee side of the tree and make a 90-degree change in the direction of travel, passing the tree on its forward side. Using the tree as a screen to hide the new trail. If this is not the direction that you want to go, change direction again about fifty meters away using the same technique.


FIGURE 8-7

Cut the Corner; used when approaching a road or trail. About 100 meters from the road, change direction, either 45 degrees left or right. Once the road is reached, leave a visible trail in the direction of the deception for a short distance on the road. Leave several signs of your presence. The tracker should believe that the corner was cut to save time. The sniper team backtracks on the trail to the point where it entered the road, and then it carefully moves on the road without leaving a good trail (i.e. maybe rolling), once the desired distance is achieved, the sniper team changes direction and continues movement. Or you just cross the trail and leave no sign of your leaving it in the first place. Then move about one hundred meters at an angle of 45 degrees, but this time on the other side of the trail and in the reverse of your approach. When changing direction back to your original line of march, the big tree technique is used to draw the enemy tracker along the easier trail. By changing direction before reaching the trail, you have indicated that the trail is your new line of march.



FIGURE

Slip the Stream; executed the same as the cut the comer technique. After entering the stream, move down stream to prevent floating debris and silt from compromising the fact you have entered the river. At some point cross to opposite shore then move back upstream and leave the stream in your initial direction. The sniper team establishes false trails upstream if time permits. Then, it moves downstream to escape since creeks and streams gain tributaries that offer more escape alternatives. When your direction of movement parallels a stream, use the stream to deceive. Stay in the center of the stream and in deep water. Watch for rocks or roots near the banks that are not covered with moss or vegetation and leave the stream at that point. - Walk out backward on soft ground.
The Circle; used to escape pursuers or to hide a patrol base. It establishes a trail in a circle as large as possible. The trail that starts on a road and returns to the same point. At some point along the trail you step off, leaving one set of tracks. The large tree maneuver or low hanging branch technique can be used to leave the trail. (Note Refer to fallowing rule # 10 Don’t back track).
Scent start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap.
Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.

10) Don’t back track:
Don’t use same door, gate, road, route you used to inter. Also with Firewatch relief’s, you should not use path your relief just used on his approach. With patrols you can circle back on to your route to ambush someone fallowing you. Easier in jungle or desert, where terrain looks similar. Note with a circular pattern, a tracker might be slowed thinking he’s being set up for ambush. Return routs along paths just off original i.e. parallel to, however at far enough distance i.e. enough separation to avoid enemy ambush, but close enough to engage the enemy. The hope here is that you well walk up on them, just behind their position.

11) Keep distance:
Second in command in stern of patrol, first up front. For patrol members, dispersed at 45’-55’ feet intervals, if terrain allows. Dispersion reduces WIA especially if enemy fire hits ammo of crew served weapons or grenades. It also makes it more difficult for enemy to get a count, as he must wait longer for patrol to pass.
With groups, this could be not everyone leaving at the same time to go to the same i.e. next location. Or not setting i.e. hanging out with each other once everyone arrives. Members could play it casual gradually introducing one another and joining up at a certain table as security situation is assessed.
In dessert, large units should converge on objective than scatter as an anti counter attack tactic, especially from air. Also recon units stay farther away from main units and move in deceptive directions from main units. MOUNTAINEERING; Route Selection; Crossing re-entrants as near to the watershed as possible. (All the land area that drains into a stream system is called a watershed) Bad weather limiting visibility can lift quickly. Don’t get caught in open areas or camp in them. In general the shortest route was not always the quickest; the trick was to avoid obstacles such as cliffs, quarries scree/rocks, bracken, ice, snow and bogs. Often the best descent is on a different route than the ascent. When looking for a firmer surface, watch for darker/dirty/settled snow this absorbs more heat and thus hardens faster than lighter/clean/fresh snow. Windward sides more packed easier traveled. Pick route where you can traverse downhill as quickly as possible. When you must ascend a dangerous slope, climb to the side of the avalanche path, and not directly up the center. Since most avalanches occur within 24 hours of a storm and or at midday, avoid moving during these periods. Units should travel before sun up, not at noon, not during unusually high or low temperatures. Late night or early morning patrols are best especially if daytime temperatures are going to rise above freeing. Avoid cornices from above or below. Avoid convex slopes stay high in slopes or low in tree line. You have to pace yourself, breath and march rhythmically. Traversing the slope in a zigzag i.e. switch back manner. The number of stragglers may be expected to increase. You had to make up time by running down the easy slopes. On the uphill keep your feet horizontal on the slopes. Avoid areas next to logs, rocks, trees, where the surrounding snow has melted away, creating hidden ice hazards. Cross danger areas one at a time. Use same path, keep mouth covered with cloth, loosen or remove skies. Remove your hands from ski pole wrist straps. Detach ski runaway cords. Prepare to discard equipment. Put your hood on. Close up your clothing. Deploy avalanche cord. Make avalanche probes and shovels accessible. If caught in slid swim or roll, working towards the edge of the avalanche. If you feel your feet touch the ground, give a hard push and try to "pop out" onto the surface. If buried spitting can help determine up or down, also throbbing in head. When your buried your breath fresses around your head trapping the carbon dioxide and you are asphyxiated. Avalanches accounted for more than ½ the KIA during alpine fighting in WW1.
AVALANCHE SEARCH AND RESCUE TECHNIQUES; when the snow comes to rest it sets up like cement. Don’t shout unless you hear rescuers immediately above you; in snow, no one can hear you scream. The respiration of an unconscious person is shallower, their pulse rate declines, and the body temperature is lowered, all of which reduce the amount of oxygen needed. Chances of survival after burial by an avalanche are approximately 90 % if the victim is located within 15 minutes. However, probability of survival drops rapidly and, after two hours, chances of survival are remote. Suffocation accounts for 65 % of fatalities, collision with debris accounts for 25 % and hypothermia and shock accounts for 10 %. In many respects, a moving avalanche resembles a liquid. A human body, with a higher density than the flowing snow, would be expected to sink deeper and deeper into the avalanche; however, several factors influence the body's location. Turbulence, terrain, and the victim's own efforts to extricate himself all interact to determine the final burial position. Efforts of the victim to extricate himself by vigorous motion and "swimming" definitely minimize burial depth. Conversely, the limp body of an unconscious victim is likely to be buried deeply. If any indication of the location of the victim is found, random probing starts in that vicinity. Establish from witnesses where the victim was located just before the avalanche to determine the point where the victim disappeared the "last seen" point. Using this and any other information, establish a probable victim trajectory line leading to high priority search areas. If two points of the victim's trajectory can be established, a high probability exists that the victim will be near the downhill flow line passing through these two points. The tip and edges of the slide are also likely areas to search. A human body is bulky and is apt to be thrown toward the surface or the sides. The majority of buried victims are carried to the place of greatest deposition, usually the toe of the slide. Any terrain features that catches debris are also apt to catch a victim. The likelihood of a victim being buried in a particular bend is proportional to the amount of debris deposited there. The victim tends to be retained above the obstacle. An obstacle may simply delay the victim's motion, leading to final burial down flow from the obstacle. Maximum speed of the flowing snow occurs at the avalanche center. Friction reduces flow velocity along the edges. The closer the victim's trajectory is to the center of the slide, the greater will be his burial depth. Probing for victims; probe Poles, 10 feet long two ski or tent pools, designed to attach to each other. The ski pole can be reversed, probing with the wrist strap down; or the basket can be removed so that the point is down (the preferred method), which allows the ski pole to penetrate the snow more easily. Probing Lines; for the probing operation to be effective, probing lines must be orderly and properly spaced. To ensure systematic and orderly probing. A string may be used to keep the probe lines aligned, but will require added time to maintain. Probing does not come to a halt when a possible contact is made. The probe is left in contact and the line continues. A shovel crew follows up by digging down along the pole. Dig in shifts, one standing by to assist when needed. Such a plan of operation is especially important when more than one victim is buried. Striking a body gives a distinct feel to the probe, which is easily recognizable in soft snow but less recognizable in hard compacted snow. A common problem is encountering debris that can be mistaken for the victim. Debris usually much more solid causing vibrations through probe. The probers themselves work silently. Probers are spaced the same as for the coarse probe. Each man probes in front of his left foot, then in the center of his straddled position, and finally in front of his right foot, then does the reverse. Types and characteristics; Starting points average 10 k’. Speeds average 200 mph. Slope Aspect; any slope of fresh snow (which dose not cohere) with an angle of repose of around 25 degrees or steeper suspect until it settles, Slopes as gentle as 15 degrees have avalanched. Most avalanches occur on slopes between 30 and 45 degrees. Slopes above 60 degrees often do not build up significant quantities of snow. When the avalanche danger is high avoid Northern, eastern and southern facing slopes? South and west slopes are harder and harden earlier in season and after storms? Most prone to avalanches in spring. Snow on north facing slopes is more likely to slide in midwinter. South facing slopes are most dangerous in the spring and on sunny, warm days. Slopes on the windward side are generally more stable than leeward slopes. Loose snow (aka point) avalanches; dangers of powder snow slides are suffocation or being swept over cliffs. Start at one point on the snow cover and grow in the shape of an inverted "V." Most frequently during the winter snow season. They often fall as many small sluffs during or shortly after a storm. This process removes snow from steep upper slopes and either stabilizes lower slopes or loads them with additional snow. Wet loose snow avalanches, large avalanches of this type, lubricated and weighed down by melting water or rain can travel long distances and have tremendous destructive power. Coastal ranges that have high temperatures and frequent rain are the most common areas for this type of avalanche. Occur in spring and summer. Slab avalanches are generally considered more dangerous than loose snow avalanches. Slab release is rapid. Are more likely to occur on convex slopes when cohesive snow begins to slide on a weak layer. The fracture line where the moving snow breaks away from the snow pack makes this type of avalanche easy to identify. Slides of wet snow freezes more solidly upon stopping. Settled snow looks darker than new flake. Compacted snow normally will not avalanche. Ground Cover rough terrain is more stable than smooth terrain. On grass, scree or on smooth rock, the snow has little to anchor to so slopes of even moderate steepness, are liable to avalanche. Or if seeping water peculates under snow forming ice base. Evidence of Avalanching look for recent avalanches and for signs of wind-loading and wind-slabs. Fracture Lines avoid any slopes showing cracks. Sounds beware of hollow sounds a "whumping" noise. They may suggest a radical settling of the snow pack.
TRIGGERS; Vibration, earth tremors have triggered avalanches. Units should always trigger avalanches before crossing if tactical situation permits. Using passing helicopters, heavy equipment, explosions.
Temperature, early ski mountaineers in the Alps noticed that avalanches sometimes occurred when shadows struck a previously sun-warmed slope. When the temperature is extremely low, settlement and adhesion occur slowly. Avalanches that occur during extreme cold weather usually occur during or immediately following a storm. At a temperature just below freezing, the snow pack stabilizes quickly. At temperatures above freezing, especially if temperatures rise quickly, the potential for avalanche is high. Rapid temperature changes, packed snow expands and contracts with temperature changes. For normal density, settled snow, a drop in temperature of 10 degrees Celsius (18 degrees Fahrenheit) would cause a snow slope 300 meters wide to contract 2 centimeters. Precipitation, storms can deposit dry snow early, which bonds poorly with the heavier snow deposited later. About 90 % of avalanches occur during or within twenty-four hours after a snowstorm. The rate at which snow falls is important. High rates of snowfall (2.5 centimeters per hour or greater?), especially when accompanied by wind, are usually responsible for major periods of avalanche activity. Rain falling on snow will increase its weight and weakens the snow pack. Wind, sustained winds of 15 mph and over transport snow and form wind slabs on the lee side of slopes.
TEST; Snow Pits; snow pits can be used to determine slope stability. Dig the snow pit on the suspect slope or a slope with the same sun and wind conditions. Snow deposits may vary greatly within a few meters due to wind and sun variations. Dig a 2-meter by 2-meter pit across the fall line, down to ground level. Once the pit is complete, smooth the face with a shovel. Conduct a shovel shear test; a shovel shear test puts pressure on a representative sample of the snow pack. The core of this test is to isolate a column of the snow pack from three sides. The column should be of similar size to the blade of the shovel. Dig out the sides of the column without pressing against the column with the shovel (this affects the strength). To isolate the rear of the column, use a rope or string to saw from side to side to the base of the column. If the column remained standing while cutting the rear, place the shovel face down on the top of the column. Tap with varying degrees of strength on the shovel to see what force it takes to create movement on the bed of the column. The surface that eventually slides will be the layer to look at closer. This test provides a better understanding of the snow pack strength. For greater results you will need to do this test in many areas and formulate a scale for the varying methods of tapping the shovel i.e. shovel lifted to a constant height before dropping onto column. Conduct a Rutschblock test; to conduct the test, isolate a column slightly longer than the length of your snowshoes or skis (same method as for the shovel shear test). One person moves on their skis or snowshoes above the block without disturbing the block. Once above, the person carefully places one snowshoe or ski onto the block with no body weight for the first stage of the test. The next stage is adding weight to the first leg. Next, place the other foot on the block. If the block is still holding up, squat once, then twice, and so on. The remaining stage is to jump up and land on the block.

12) Don’t skyline:
Don’t cast silhouettes against backgrounds i.e. skylines, crawl up too roof pecks, hill crest, ridges or cliffs after choosing good backgrounds. Example, positioned right in front of tree. The rising ground behind objective prevented light form fire diffusing itself. Those close to fire see less of what is in its light. Be just as careful at night especially moonlight nights as in the daytime about keeping off the skyline. If you are framed against a light road at night, you will make a sharp silhouette. Remember that the position of the enemy observer, and not the topographic crest, fixes the skyline.

13) When crossing:
The easy way is always mined. lol! With elongated objects, Example: logs, fences or walls lie along side and roll over parallel to them. When crossing roads, trails and (rivers if tactical and other factors coincide) you want to cross just before a bend at low points and or at under passes or bridges. Look for a high place from which you can get a good view of the obstacle and possible crossing sites. A distant view, perhaps from a ridge is sometimes better than a hundred close views from the roadside or riverbank. Then crawl up to the edge of road etc (chose good back ground) and observe the other side. Pick location with cover and or concealment on both sides. Always set up flank security especially a lookout posted 100 meters upstream to watch for any obstacles (fallen trees) that may be carried downstream and interfere with the crossing (or traffic of any kind on river or roads). Security posted downstream might set up a net to snag items lost or Marines who fall in. At least have poles or ropes prepared to throw for rescue. After crossing to other side, check area and establish flank security. From the air, crossing an open field is easily observed. Movement over open ground is disclosed by tracks, especially from the air, your individual footprints show up as a light line across such a field. Stay on the terrain lines: fences, ditches, hedgerows, roads and paths already there. In open areas standing Marines casts larger shadows. Hugging the ground, keeps shadows as small as possible. With less growth available, the more the necessity for crawling and speed i.e. running. Moving in the open during moonless nights. Reasons for this, a dark night furnishes the shadow/concealment and a route is chosen to give you background, keeping you off the skyline. In cultivated fields, the lowest point may be covered by water, reducing silhouette if you wade in, and concealing tracks. Also despite conventional wisdom to the contrary, many prefer to travel in the middle of rice paddies. People, pigs and geese lived in the tree lines. Furthermore, it is also difficult to walk quietly in the woods at night, easier for the enemy waiting in ambush to here you. Light discipline is essential. On bright moonlight nights, the shadow along the edge of the woods maybe the best route, but you lose security, with enemy having cover and concealment if located along wooded edge.

The absents of good roads well have less effect in summer but dust gives away the least movement. Dust clouds of German vehicles on eastern front during WW 11 seen 40 miles away by USSR civilians. In barren land dust can wear out pistons in weeks. Crossing desert surfaces maintain constant speed, avoid sharp turns abrupt stops or starts. Patches of different colors or Shades should be checked before crossing, especially in Marshes. Marsh tails visible during dry season well hold water in wet season. In summer marshes/swamps are barriers to traffic, in winter like rivers become bridges for traffic. Mud in general leads to the feeling of isolation and premature retreats. Avoiding tracks of vehicles in front of yours may provide better traction. Lead vehicles become separated from fallow on vehicles. Formations difficult to control as Marines and vehicles simply seek out best routes. Getting stuck, tress cut down, items and debris (from buildings) taken and thrown into the road. Vehicle winching use anchored whole method. Tarp is filled with sand for anchor. Letting air out of tires for traction. Using engine exhaust to fill air bags, to lift vehicles. Crossing dunes drive strait up at best speed on windward/up wind side which is crusted and has a more gradual slope. Leeward/Down wind side no crust and has steeper slope. With tanks, sluggish steering response indicates sand build up between stern sprockets, treads can come off. Counter by backing up. Shaking right and left. Tank treads shorten not raped around all wheels will still work.

Note see Appendix PCP rule # 13 for more information.

14) Patrol till dusk wake before dawn:
As long as patrol is moving it is less a target. Once you stop, seeing you is more difficult. Enemy will most likely attack at dawn be up and ready. You do not wait for sunrise in the place you were at during sunset. Move to alternate position. Attack at night or in the morning; these are hours of refreshment, meals and or showers.

15) Never let up your guard:
When you secure an area don’t forget to tell the enemy. lol! This rule applies especially at exits or entries when patrols are leaving or returning. Enemy attacks likely at night or after long patrols. Villagers in area being friendly with Marines on there initial contact, then blocking patrol on their return trip, upon exit from area. When walking look back frequently to note features of recognition for return trip, especially in sub-terrain or caves. With units every other man (360 degree check) method for enemy searches. When returning to original positions make a complete circle with your body. Urban patrols should pause now and then to just lesson i.e. stop and “lay dog” to listen for anything out of place.
When on patrol and you come up on a possible ambush point i.e. ally entrance a foe could jump out from and get between patrol members to shoot them after they pass. You should station your self there until next member arrives to relieve you. Aka station and relief tactic.

Over all tips

The classic Law of the 7 P’s applies. Proper Previous Planning Prevents Piss Poor Performance.


Dispatch trail breaking teams far enough in advance to insure continuous, uninterrupted movement of the main body.
Prior detailed reconnaissance is most important to insure successful mobility as always.

The first halt after initiating a march should be made in approximately 15 minutes. This will allow adjustment of clothing and equipment.
Normally, corpsmen and first sgt will bring up the rear of the column and, in each halt, will check the men and report their condition to the leader.
Marching in single file is often the best formation. It maintains track discipline, camouflage, and reduces the number of trailbreakers and reconnaissance parties required.

Advantages of snow; speed of patrol on skies and longer ranges possible. Holding capacity is the interaction with waxes and snow to minimize back sliding with out impeding forward motion. Changes with snow conditions different waxes are used. Carrying capacity when snow packed capacity improves movement is easier. Ice although it is firm it is slippery. In the woods snow softer Carrying capacity pourer than in open area. Also in wooded areas snow collects latter in winter and remains longer into spring. Movement from sun lighted to shaded areas is difficult because snow in lighted areas is wet and sticks to skies and snow shoes, then freezes in shaded areas. During break up periods i.e. Spring. Snow becomes slushy, danger of rust and corrosion is at its highest in Summer. At mid winter the lack of moisture in the air reduces this risk. During brake up and autumn drops in temperature at night and still in early morning makes movement easier. Sleds when run long distances build up heat on there skates; when sleds are stopped they may settle in snow and freeze in the ice. Should be parked on logs or unloaded and stood on end or side.

MT. slopes easy to travel in summer can be difficult in winter. Sleet on rocks can quickly transform trail into difficult route. Rock falls almost always localized on certain part of the face of a peak in gullies or couloirs making natural funnels. Routes which cling to a ridge (military crest) are immune. (Sinai) Rock slides and avalanches are not as common as in high cold mountains. Whenever a rock is kicked loose, personnel in area can immediately lean into the cliff to reduce their exposure, and do not look up. Personnel farther away may look up to determine where the rock is heading and seek cover behind an obstacle. Lacking cover, personnel should move out of its path to the left or right. If a Marine slips or stumbles he must immediately self-arrest, roll over onto stomach with his legs downhill, digging into the slope with hands, elbows, knees and toes. With steep terrain, of solid ground, (rock or ice) use the ice ax for self-arrest. Also used as a third point of contact on difficult terrain. If not in use the ice ax is carried in or on the rucksack with its head down and secured. The character of rocks; Dolomite or Granite of the Aiguilles of Chamonix is very secure. Sandstone and shale of the Canadian Rockies very unstable. Rock most likely to fall when ice of previous night melts in morning sunlight, Eastern slopes first.

(Note see rule # 4/5 skis) In MT. travel is difficult on snow shoes. Continuous traffic packs snow and may allow movement on foot, with out skies or shoes. Infantry may utilize tracks made by armor. Marines on skies can be towed but not with shoes. On shoes mobility restored to point approaching foot traffic on hard ground.

Assent of MT. start from camp located at snow line or above, early as possible in morning several hours before sunrise. Marines roped together as soon as unit reaches the ne’ve (firn) of glaciers. Most experienced leads, least in the middle. If soft snow is found or much step cutting in ice is necessary each Marine relieves the other as leader. Pace is slow enough that no one gasps for breath. At low altitude strong unit can average 2000 feet per hour vertically. Can be as slow as 100 feet per hour with lots of step cutting or on rocks. Rope always kept taunt between Marines. Spikes driven in by leader as high as can be reached. Snap ring emplaced, rope fed threw and then haul others up. Halts made rarely at low altitudes, every two hours at high elevations. Crossing wide snow fields, willow wands may be set. Stone cairns may be erected at strategic points on rocks. On descent strongest man at stern for holding Marines that fall. At difficult points on the descent even more than on the ascent the rope is belayed about a projection (piece of rock) or ice axes, wedged in to rocks. Only one man moves at a time. At very difficult points during descent units may descend en rappel. Fatigue or feeling of relaxation makes for carelessness, more accidents happen during descent. At least 3 Marines per unit, smaller the party less delay crossing difficult terrain, when only one at a time may cross. With out 3 rescue of one becomes difficult. The weak link is very important, in gauging units’ abilities. When vehicle patrols are stopped (weather to turn engines off or not) Herringbone maneuver, column splits into two one each side facing out. Two vehicles forward one each lane to block traffic, two vehicles move to stern.

CLIMBING

The margin of safety is a protective buffer the climber places between himself and potential climbing hazards. Both subjective (personnel-related) and objective (environmental) hazards must be considered when applying the margin of safety. The leader must apply the margin of safety taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of the entire team or unit.
Rock climbing can leave the climbing party totally exposed to weather, terrain hazards, and the enemy for the length of the climb. Sometimes steep rock cannot be avoided. Climbing relatively short sections of steep rock (one or two pitches) may prove quicker and safer than using alternate routes. A steep rock route would normally be considered an unlikely avenue of approach and, therefore, might be weakly defended or not defended at all.

Approach Observations for route selection.
Watch the mountain during the approach march, studying it for climbing routes. Distant views can reveal large-scale patterns of ridges, cliffs, snowfields and glaciers. General angles of the large rock masses can be seen from afar. Most features (patterns and angles) repeat themselves at increasingly finer levels (smaller scale), as they are generally derived from the overall structure of the particular mountain group. A basic knowledge of mountain geology, combined with the specific geological background of the operational area, pays off in more efficient travel. Experienced climbers learn to climb with the "eyes." before getting on the rock, study all possible routes, or "lines," to the top. Noting fault lines, gross bedding planes of rock, cliff bands, and crevasse zones. Snowy or vegetated ledge systems. Note any larger ledges or benches for resting places. Weaknesses in the mountain walls, such as couloirs or gullies. Looking for cracks, ledges, nubbins, and other irregularities in the rock used for footholds and handholds, mentally climb the route, rehearsing the step-by-step sequence of movements required.
SPOTTING
A "top-rope" belay can be used for safety, allowing the individual to increase the length and difficulty of the climb under the protection of the climbing rope.
Personnel not climbing can act as "otters" for those climbing. Spotting is a technique used to add a level of safety to climbing without a rope. A second man stands below and just outside of the climbers fall path and helps (spots) the climber to land safely if he should fall. The spotter should not catch but pushes the climber against the rock.
CLIMBING TECHNIQUE
A variety of techniques are used to climb different types of rock formations. These techniques can be thought of as a combination of the balanced movement required to walk a tightrope and the used to ascend a ladder. No mountaineering equipment is required; however, the techniques are also used in roped climbing.
Climbing involves linking together a series of movements based on foot and hand placement, weight shift, and movement. When this series of movements is combined correctly, smooth climbing which reduces excess force results. The basic principle is based on the five body parts described here. The right hand, left hand, right foot, left foot, and body (trunk). The basic principle is to move only one at a time. The trunk is not moved in conjunction with a foot or hand, a hand is not moved in conjunction with a foot, and so on. Following this simple technique forces both legs to do all the lifting simultaneously.
Body position is the single most important element. The body should be near vertical with the weight centered over feet. Leaning in towards the rock will cause the feet to push outward, away from the rock, resulting in a loss of friction between the boot sole and rock surface. A relaxed, comfortable stance is essential. The legs are straight, bent legs and tense muscles tire quickly. The heels are kept low to reduce fatigue. Strained muscles may vibrate uncontrollably. AKA "Elvis-ing" it is cured by straightening the leg, lowering the heel. The hands are used to maintain balance. Keeping the hands between waist and shoulder level will reduce arm fatigue.

Whenever possible, three points of contact are maintained with the rock. Proper positioning of the hips and shoulders is critical. When using two footholds and one handhold, the hips and shoulders should be centered over both feet. In most cases, as the climbing progresses, the body is resting on one foot with two handholds for balance. The hips and shoulders must be centered over the support foot to maintain balance, allowing the "free" foot to maneuver.

The angle or steepness of the rock also determines how far away from the rock the hips and shoulders should be. On low-angle slopes, the hips are moved out away from the rock to keep the body in balance with the weight over the feet. The shoulders can be moved closer to the rock to reach handholds. On steep rock, the hips are pushed closer to the rock. The shoulders are moved away from the rock by arching the back. The body is still in balance over the feet and the eyes can see where the hands need to go. Sometimes, when footholds are small, the hips are moved back to increase friction between the foot and the rock. This is normally done on quick, intermediate holds. It should be avoided in the rest position as it places more weight on the arms and hands. When weight must be placed on handholds, the arms should be kept straight to reduce fatigue.
Performing these steps in this exact order will not always be necessary because the nature of the route will dictate the availability of hand and foot placements. The basic steps are weight, shift, and movement (movement being either the foot, hand, or body). (A typical climbing sequence is shown in Figure 6-3.)

The trunk does not move during foot movement. Shift the weight from both feet to one foot. Feet placed within one to two feet of the starting position (higher placement will result in a potentially higher lift for the legs to make, creating more stress, and is called a high step) Shift the weight onto both feet. Lift the body into a new stance with both legs. Move one hand to a new position between waist and head height. During this movement, the trunk should be completely balanced in position and the removed hand should have no effect on stability.
Now the entire body is in a new position and ready to start the process again. Following these steps will prevent lifting with the hands and arms, which are used to maintain stance and balance. If both legs are bent, leg extension can be performed as soon as one foot has been moved. Hand movements can be delayed until numerous foot movements have been made, which not only creates shorter lifts with the legs, but may allow a better choice for the next hand movements because the reach will have increased.

When the angle of the rock increases, these movements become more critical. Holding or pulling the body into the rock with the arms and hands may be necessary as the angle increases (this is still not lifting with the arms). Many climbing routes have angles greater than ninety degrees (overhanging) and the arms are used to support partial body weight. The same technique applies even at those angles. Avoid climbing directly above or below other climbers. When personnel must climb at the same time, following the same line, a fixed rope should be installed.

Avoid moving on the knees and elbows. These bony portions of the limbs offer little friction and "feel" on the rock.

USE OF HOLDS
All jewelry should be removed from the fingers.
Avoid climbing with gloves on because of the decreased "feel" for the rock. The use of gloves in the training environment is especially discouraged, while their use in the mountains is often mandatory when it is cold. A thin polypropylene or wool glove is best for rock climbing, although heavier cotton or leather work gloves are often used for belaying.
Avoid grasping vegetation for handholds; the root systems can be shallow and will usually not support much weight.
The climber should check each hold before use, grab and tug on the hold to test it. Force can be applied in a direction that strengthens it. A loose nubbin might not be strong enough to support the climber's weight, but it may serve as an adequate handhold.
CLIMBING WITH THE FEET
It is true that solid handholds and a firm grip are needed in some combination techniques; however, even the most strenuous techniques require good footwork and a quick return to a balanced position over one or both feet.
The beginning climber will have a natural tendency to look up for handholds. Try to keep the hands low and train your eyes to look down for footholds. Even the smallest irregularity in the rock can support the climber once the foot is positioned properly and weight is committed to it.
Maximum Sole Contact. Maximum friction is obtained by placing as much of the boot sole on the rock as possible, leg muscles can also relax. (Figure 6-4) On some large holds, like bucket holds that extend deep into the rock, the entire foot cannot be used. The climber may not be able to achieve a balanced position if the foot is stuck too far underneath a bulge in the rock. In this case, placing only part of the foot on the hold may allow the climber to achieve a balanced stance. Remember to keep the heels low to reduce strain on the lower leg muscles.


Figure 6-4 Examples of maximum and minimum sole contact

Edging. used where horizontal crack systems and other irregularities in the rock form small, well-defined ledges. The edge of the boot sole (usually, the inside edge) is used. Whenever possible, turn the foot sideways and use the entire inside edge. (Figure 6-5)
On smaller holds, edging with the toe, may be used. Use of the toe is most tiring because the heel is off the rock. Remember to keep the heel low to reduce fatigue. Curling and stiffening the toes in the boot increases support. A stronger position is usually obtained on small ledges by turning the foot at about a 45-degree angle, using the strength of the big toe and the ball of the foot. The stiffer the sole, the better the edging capability.


Figure 6-5 Examples of edging technique

Smearing. When footholds are too small to use a good edging technique, the ball of the foot can be "smeared" over the hold. The smearing technique requires the boot to adhere to the rock by deformation of the sole and by friction. The leg should be kept straight whenever possible. Rock climbing shoes are specifically designed to maximize friction for smearing; some athletic shoes also work well. (Figure 6-6)


Figure 6-6 Examples of the smearing technique

Jamming. Works on the same principal as chock placement. The foot is set into a crack in such a way that it "jams" into place, resisting a downward pull. The jamming technique is a specialized skill used to climb vertical or near vertical cracks. The technique is not limited to just wedging the feet; fingers, hands, arms, even the entire leg or body are all used in the jamming technique, depending on the size of the crack. The foot can be jammed in a crack in different ways. It can be inserted above a constriction and set into the narrow portion, or it can be placed in the crack and turned, like a camming device, until it locks in place. Some foot jams may be difficult to remove once weight has been committed to them, especially if a stiffer sole boot is used. The foot is less likely to get stuck when it is twisted or "cammed" into position. When removing the boot from a crack, reverse the way it was placed to prevent further constriction.


Figure 6-7 Examples of jamming


USING THE HANDS
Exactly how and where to position the hands and arms depends on what holds are available, and what configuration will best support the current stance as well as the movement to the next stance. Selecting handholds between waist and shoulder level helps in different ways. Circulation in the arms and hands is best when arms are low. Secondly, there’s less tendency to "hang" on the arms when handholds are at shoulder level and below. Both of these contribute to a relaxed stance and reduce fatigue.
a. As the individual climbs, he continually repositions his hands and arms to keep the body in balance, with the weight centered over the feet. On lower-angled rock, he may simply need to place the hands up against the rock and extend the arm to maintain balance; just like using an ice ax as a third point of contact in mountain walking. Sometimes, he will be able to push directly down on a large hold with the palm of the hand. More often though, he will need to "grip" the rock and push or pull to maintain balance.
b. Beginners will undoubtedly place too much weight on the hands and arms. Think about ourselves climbing a ladder, our body weight is on our legs. Our hands grip, and our arms pull on each rung only enough to maintain our balance. Of course, as the size and availability of holds decreases, and the steepness of the rock approaches the vertical, more weight well be placed on the arms and handholds for brief moments. The key move quickly from smaller holds to the larger holds.
(1) Push Holds. rely on friction created when the hand is pushed against the rock. Most often a "downward pressure" on a ledge or nubbin. However, don’t limit push holds to applications of down pressure. Pushing sideways, and on occasion, even upward on less obvious holds can prove secure. Push holds often work best when used in combination with other holds. Pushing in opposite directions and "push-pull" combinations are excellent techniques.
(a) effective push holds don’t require the use of the entire hand. On smaller holds, the side of the palm, the fingers, or the thumb may be all that’s needed.
(b) Most push holds do not require much grip; however, friction might be increased by taking advantage of any rough surfaces or irregularities in the rock. Try squeezing, or "pinching," the rock between the thumb and fingers (see paragraph on pinch holds).
(2) Pull Holds. aka "cling holds," which are grasped and pulled upon, are the most widely used holds. Grip plays more of a role, therefore, it normally feels more secure to the climber than a push hold. Because of this feeling of security, pull holds are often overworked, and climbers have a tendency to hang from them. Avoid the "death grip" syndrome by climbing with the feet. (Figure 6-9)
(a) Like push holds, pressure on a pull hold can be applied straight down, sideways, or upward.
(b) Pulling sideways on vertical cracks can be very secure. There is less tendency to hang from "side-clings" and the hands naturally remain lower. The thumb can often push against one side of the crack, in opposition to the pull by the fingers, creating a stronger hold. Both hands can also be placed in the same crack, with the hands pulling in opposite directions. The number of possible combinations is limited only by the imagination.



Figure 6-9. Examples of pull holds.

(c) Friction and strength of a pull hold can be increased by the way the hand grips the rock. Normally, the grip is stronger when the fingers are closed together; however, sometimes more friction is obtained by spreading the fingers apart and placing them between irregularities on the rock surface. On small holds, grip can often be improved by bending the fingers upward, forcing the palm of the hand to push against the rock. This helps to hold the finger tips in place and reduces muscle strain in the hand. Keeping the forearm up against the rock also allows the arm and hand muscles to relax more.
(d) Another technique that helps to strengthen a cling hold for a downward pull is to press the thumb against the side of the index finger, or place it on top of the index finger and press down. This hand configuration, known as a "ring grip," works well on smaller holds.
(3) Pinch Holds. Sometimes a small nubbin or protrusion in the rock can be "squeezed" between the thumb and fingers. Friction is applied by increasing the grip on the rock. Pinch holds are often overlooked by the novice climber because they feel insecure at first and cannot be relied upon to support much body weight. If the climber has his weight over his feet properly, the pinch hold will work well in providing balance. The pinch hold can also be used as a gripping technique for push holds and pull holds.


Figure 6-10. Examples of pinch holds.

(4) Jam Holds. Like foot jams, the fingers and hands can be wedged or cammed into a crack. Cotton tape can be used to protect the fingertips, knuckles, and the back of the hand; however, tape also adds friction. Prolonged jamming technique should be avoided.
(a) An open hand or clenched fist can be inserted and wedged into a crack. Friction can be created by applying cross pressure between the fingers and the back of the hand. Another technique for vertical cracks is to place the hand in the crack with the thumb pointed either up or down. The hand is then clenched as much as possible. When the arm is straightened, it will twist the hand and tend to cam it into place. This combination of clenching and camming usually produces the most friction, and the most secure hand jam in vertical cracks.
(b) In smaller cracks, only the fingers will fit. Use as many fingers as the crack will allow. The fingers can sometimes be stacked in some configuration to increase friction. The thumb is usually kept outside the crack in finger jams and pressed against the rock to increase friction or create cross pressure. In vertical cracks it is best to insert the fingers with the thumb pointing down to make use of the natural camming action of the fingers that occurs when the arm is twisted towards a normal position. Note thumb up or down or tucked into palm.
(c) Jamming technique for large cracks, or "off widths," requiring the use of arm, leg, and body jams, is another technique. To jam or cam an arm, leg, or body into an off width, the principle is the same as for fingers, hands, or feet-you are making the jammed appendage "fatter" by folding or twisting it inside the crack. For off widths, you may place your entire arm inside the crack with the arm folded and the palm pointing outward. The leg can be used, from the calf to the thigh, and flexed to fit the crack. Routes requiring this type of climbing should be avoided as the equipment normally used for protection might not be large enough to protect larger cracks and openings. However, sometimes a narrower section may be deeper in the crack allowing the use of "normal" size protection.

6-10. COMBINATION TECHNIQUES

a. Sometimes, the climber may come upon a section of the rock that defies the basic principles of climbing. Many of these type problems require the hands and feet to work in opposition to one another. Most will place more weight on the hands and arms than is desirable, and some will put the climber in an "out of balance" position. To make the move, the climber may have to "break the rules" momentarily. The key to using combination techniques is to plan and execute them deliberately, without lunging or groping for holds, yet quickly, before muscles tire, good technique more than great strength.
(1) Change Step. The change step, or hop step, can be used when the climber needs to change position of the feet. It is commonly used when traversing to avoid crossing the feet. Two solid handholds should be used. Keeping the forearms against the rock during the maneuver takes some of the strain off the hands. The climber simply places his weight on his handholds while he repositions the feet. Often with a quick "hop," replacing the lead foot with the trail foot on the same hold.
(2) Mantling. can be used when the distance between holds increases and there are no immediate places to move the hands or feet. It does require a ledge (mantle) or projection in the rock that the climber can press straight down upon.
(a) When the ledge is above head height, mantling begins with pull holds, usually "hooking" both hands over the ledge. The climber pulls himself up until his head is above the hands, where the pull holds become push holds. He elevates himself until the arms are straight and he can lock the elbows to relax the muscles. Rotating the hands inward during the transition to push holds helps to place the palms more securely on the ledge. Once the arms are locked, a foot can be raised and placed on the ledge. The climber may have to remove one hand to make room for the foot. With the foot on the ledge, weight can be taken off the arms and the climber can grasp the holds that were previously out of reach. Once balanced over the foot, he can stand up on the ledge and plan his next move.
(b) Pure mantling uses arm strength to raise the body; however, the climber can often smear the balls of the feet against the rock and "walk" the feet up during the maneuver to take some of the weight off the arms.
(3) Undercling. a classic example of handholds and footholds working in opposition (Figure 6-13). Commonly used where the rock projects outward, forming a bulge or small overhang. Can be used in the tops of buckets, also. The hands are placed "palms-up" underneath the bulge, applying an upward pull. Increasing this upward pull creates a counterforce, or body tension, which applies more weight and friction to the footholds. The arms and legs should be kept as straight as possible to reduce fatigue. The climber can often lean back slightly in the undercling position, enabling him to see above the overhang better and search for the next hold.
(4) Lieback. another good example of the hands working in opposition to the feet. Often used in a vertical or diagonal crack separating two rock faces that come together at, more or less, a right angle (commonly referred to as a dihedral). The crack edge closest to the body is used for handholds while the feet are pressed against the other edge. The climber bends at the waist, putting the body into an L-shaped position. Leaning away from the crack on two pull holds, body tension creates friction between the feet and the hands. The feet must be kept relatively high to maintain weight, creating maximum friction between the sole and the rock surface. Either full sole contact or the smearing technique can be used, whichever produces the most friction.
(a) The climber ascends a dihedral by alternately shuffling the hands and feet upward. The lieback technique can be extremely tiring, especially when the dihedral is near vertical. The arms should be kept straight throughout the entire maneuver so the climber's weight is pulling against bones and ligaments, rather than muscle. The legs should be straightened whenever possible.
(b) Placing protection in a lieback is especially tiring. Look for edges or pockets for the feet in the crack or on the face for a better position to place protection from, or for a rest position. Often, a lieback can be avoided with closer examination of the available face features. The lieback can be used alternately with the jamming technique, or vice versa, for variation or to get past a section of a crack with difficult or nonexistent jam possibilities. The lieback can sometimes be used as a face maneuver (Figure 6-14).



Figure 6-14. Lieback on a face.

(5) Stemming. When the feet work in opposition from a relatively wide stance, the maneuver is known as stemming. Sometimes used on faces, as well as in a dihedral in the absence of solid handholds for the lieback (Figure 6-15).



Figure 6-15. Stemming on a face.
(a) The classic example of stemming is when used in combination with two opposing push holds in wide, parallel cracks, known as chimneys. Chimneys are cracks in which the walls are at least 1 foot apart and just big enough to squeeze the body into. Friction is created by pushing outward with the hands and feet on each side of the crack. The climber ascends the chimney by alternately moving the hands and feet up the crack (Figure 6-16). Applying pressure with the back and bottom is usually necessary in wider chimneys. Usually, full sole contact of the shoes will provide the most friction, although smearing may work best in some instances. Chimneys that do not allow a full stemming position can be negotiated using the arms, legs, or body as an integral contact point. This technique will often feel more secure since there is more body to rock contact.

Figure 6-16. Chimney sequence (continued).
(b) The climber can sometimes rest by placing both feet on the same side of the crack, forcing the body against the opposing wall. The feet must be kept relatively high up under the body so the force is directed sideways against the walls. The arms should be straightened with the elbows locked whenever possible. The climber must ensure that the crack does not widen beyond the climbable width before committing to the maneuver.
(6) Slab Technique. A slab is a relatively smooth, low-angled rock formation that requires a slightly modified climbing technique (Figure 6-17). Since slab rock normally contains few, if any holds, the technique requires maximum friction and perfect balance over the feet.
(a) On lower-angled slab, the climber can often stand erect and climb using full sole contact. On steeper slab, the climber will need to apply good smearing technique. The climber will have to flex the ankles and knees so his weight is placed more directly over the balls of the feet. He may then have to bend at the waist to place the hands on the rock, while keeping the hips over his feet.
(b) The climber must pay attention to any changes in slope angle and adjust his body accordingly. Even the slightest change in the position of the hips over the feet can mean the difference between a good grip or a quick slip. The climber should also take advantage of any rough surfaces, or other irregularities.
(7) Down Climbing. Descending steep rock is normally performed using a roped method; however, the climber may at some point be required to down climb a route. Down climbing easier terrain is often quicker than taking the time to rig a rappel point. Also, a climber might find himself confronted with difficulties part way up a route that exceed his climbing ability, or the abilities of others to follow.
1. Down climbing can inadvertently lead into an unforeseen dangerous position on a descent. When in doubt, use a roped descent.
2. Down climbing is accomplished at a difficulty level well below the ability of the climber.
(a) On easier terrain, the climber can face outward, away from the rock, enabling him to see the route better and descend quickly. As the steepness and difficulty increase, he can often turn sideways, still having a good view but being better able to use the hands and feet on the holds available. On the steepest terrain, the climber will have to face the rock and down climb using good climbing techniques.
(b) Down climbing is usually more difficult than ascending a given route. Some holds will be less visible when down climbing, and slips are more likely to occur. The climber must often lean well away from the rock to look for holds and plan his movements. More weight is placed on the arms and handholds at times to accomplish this, as well as to help lower the climber to the next foothold. Hands should be moved to holds as low as waist level to give the climber more range of movement with each step. If the handholds are too high, he may have trouble reaching the next foothold. The climber must be careful not to overextend himself, forcing a release of his handholds before reaching the next foothold.
Do not drop from good handholds to a standing position. A bad landing could lead to injured ankles or a fall beyond the planned landing area.
(c) Descending slab formations can be especially tricky. The generally lower angle of slab rock may give the climber a false sense of security, and a tendency to move too quickly. Down climbing must be slow and deliberate, as in ascending, to maintain perfect balance and weight distribution over the feet.
(d) On steeper slab, the climber will normally face the rock and down climb, using the same smearing technique as for ascending. An alternate method for descending slab is to face away from the rock in a "crab" position (Figure 6-18). Weight is still concentrated over the feet, but may be shifted partly onto the hands to increase overall friction. The climber is able to maintain full sole contact with the rock and see the entire descent route. Allowing the buttocks to "drag behind" on the rock will decrease the actual weight on the footholds, reducing friction, and leading to the likelihood of a slip. Facing the rock, and down-climbing with good smearing technique, is usually best on steeper slab.


Figure 6-18. Descending slab in the crab position.

MOUNTAIN WALKING TECHNIQUES
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Up scree or talus, through boulder fields or steep wooded mountainsides, over snow or grass-covered slopes, the basic principles of mountain walking remain the same.
a. The soldier’s weight is centered directly over the feet. He places his foot flat on the ground to obtain as much (boot) sole-ground contact as possible. Then, he places his foot on the uphill side of grass tussocks, small talus and other level spots to avoid twisting the ankle and straining the Achilles tendon. He straightens the knee after each step to allow for rest, and takes moderate steps at a steady pace. An angle of ascent or descent that is too steep is avoided, and any indentations in the slope are used to advantage.
b. pace is adapted to conditions. Set a tempo, or number of steps per minute, according to the pace of the unit. (Physical differences mean that the tempos of two people moving at the same speed will not always be the same.) The soldier maintains tempo and compensates for changes of slope or terrain by adjusting the length of his stride. Tempo, pace, and rhythm are enhanced when an interval of three to five paces is kept between individuals. This interval helps lessen the "accordion" effect of people at the end of the file who must constantly stop and start.
c. The terrain, weather, and light conditions affect the rate of climb.
d. When a moderate pace is set, the need for rest halts decreases, the chance of personnel overheating is lessened, and a unit can cover a given distance in a minimal time. Moving too fast, produces early fatigue, requires more rest halts resulting in loss of climbing time. Rest, good nutrition and hydration, acclimatization, are key to successful mountain operations.
If possible, rests should be taken on level ground avoiding steeper inclines.
(1) During the first half-hour of movement an adjustment halt should be taken. Soldiers will loosen or tighten bootlaces as needed, adjust packs and add or remove appropriate layers of clothing.
(2) Following the first halt, a well-conditioned party may take a short rest every 1 to 1.5 hours. If possible, soldiers lean against a tree, rock, or hillside to relieve the shoulders of pack weight, breathe deeply, hydrate, and snack on trail food. These halts are kept short enough to avoid muscles stiffening (one to two minutes).
(3) Later in the march longer halts may be necessary due to fatigue. At these halts soldiers should immediately put on additional clothing to avoid chilling—it is much easier to keep a warm body warm than to warm up a cold one.
e. The rest step is used for steep slopes, snowfields, and higher elevations. It controls pace and limits fatigue by giving the lungs and legs a moment to recuperate between steps. Pace is kept slow and rhythmic.
(1) After each step forward, the soldier pauses briefly, relaxing the muscles of the forward leg while resting his entire bodyweight on the stern leg. The rear leg is kept straight with the knee locked so that bone, not muscle, supports the weight.
(2) Breathing is synchronized with the rest step. The number of breaths per step will change depending on the difficulty of the climb. Steeper slopes or higher elevations may require several breaths per step. When the air thins at altitude it is especially important to breathe deeply, using the "pressure breathing" technique. The soldier exhales strongly, enabling an easier, deeper inhale.
(3) This slow, steady, halting rest step is more efficient than spurts of speed, which are rapidly exhausting and require longer recovery.
f. Downhill walking uses less energy than uphill but is much harder on the body. Stepping down can hammer the full bodyweight onto the feet and legs. Blisters and blackened toenails, knee damage, and back pain may follow. To avoid these problems the soldier should start by tightening bootlaces and keep toenails trimmed. A ski pole, ice ax, or walking stick will help. (Refer to Chapter 11 for techniques and use of the ice ax.) Keep a moderate pace and walk with knees flexed to absorb shock.
g. Side hill travel on any surface should be avoided. Weighted down with a rucksack, the soldier is vulnerable to twisted ankles, back injury, and loss of balance. If side hill travel is necessary, try to switchback periodically, and use any lower angle flat areas such as rocks, animal trails, and the ground above grass or brush clumps to level off the route.
8-2. TECHNIQUES
Mountain walking techniques can be divided according to the general formation, surface, and ground cover such as walking on hard ground, on snow slopes and grassy slopes, through thick brush, and on scree and talus slopes.
a. Hard Ground. When ascending, employ the rest step to rest the leg muscles. Steep slopes can be traversed rather than climbed straight up. To turn at the end of each traverse, the soldier should step off in the new direction with the uphill foot. This prevents crossing the feet and possible loss of balance. While traversing, the full sole-to-ground principle is accomplished by rolling the ankle downhill on each step. For small stretches the herringbone step may be used—ascending straight up a slope with toes pointed out. A normal progression, as the slope steepens, would be from walking straight up, to a herringbone step, and then to a traverse on the steeper areas.
(2) Descending is best done by walking straight down the slope without traversing. The soldier keeps his back straight and bends at the knees to absorb the shock of each step. Body weight is kept directly over the feet and the full boot sole is placed on the ground with each step. Walking with a slight forward lean and with the feet in a normal position make the descent easier.
b. Snow Slopes. Snow-covered terrain can be encountered throughout the year above 1,500 meters in many mountainous areas. For ascending and descending moderate snow slopes are similar to walking on hard ground with some exceptions.
(1) Diagonal Traverse Technique. The most efficient means to ascend snow, in conjunction with the ice ax it provides balance and safety. This technique is a two-step sequence. The basic rest step, placing the leading (uphill) foot above and in front of the trailing (downhill) foot, and weighting the trail leg. This is the in-balance position. The ice ax, held in the uphill hand, is placed in the snow above and to the front. The soldier shifts his weight to the leading (uphill) leg and brings the unweighted trail (downhill) foot ahead of the uphill foot. He shifts weight to the forward (downhill) leg and then moves the uphill foot up and places it out ahead of the trail foot, returning to the in-balance position. At this point the ax is moved forward in preparation for the next step.
(2) Step Kicking. A basic technique used when crampons are not worn. It is best used on moderate slopes when the snow is soft enough to leave clear footprints. On softer snow the soldier swings his foot into the snow, allowing the leg’s weight and momentum to carve the step. Fully laden soldiers will need to kick steps, which take half of the boot. The steps should be angled slightly into the slope for added security. Succeeding climbers will follow directly in the steps of the trailbreaker, each one improving the step as he ascends. Harder snow requires more effort to kick steps, and they will not be as secure. The soldier may need to slice the step with the side of his boot and use the diagonal technique to ascend.
(3) Descending Snow. If the snow is soft and the slope gentle, simply walk straight down. Harder snow or steeper slopes call for the plunge step, which must be done in a positive, aggressive manner. The soldier faces out, steps off, and plants his foot solidly, driving the heel into the snow while keeping his leg straight. He shifts his weight to the new foot plant and continues down with the other foot. On steeper terrain it may be necessary to squat on the weighted leg when setting the plunge step. The upper body should be kept erect or canted slightly forward.

Tips on Snow Travel.
(a) Often the best descent is on a different route than the ascent. When looking for a firmer travel surface, watch for dirty snow—this absorbs more heat and thus hardens faster than clean snow.
(b) In the Northern Hemisphere, slopes with southern and western exposures set up earlier in the season and quicker after storms, but are more prone to avalanches in the spring. These slopes generally provide firm surfaces while northern and eastern exposures remain unconsolidated.
(c) Travel late at night or early in the morning is best if daytime temperatures are above freezing and the sun heats the slopes. The night’s cold hardens the snow surface.
(d) Avoid walking on snow next to logs, trees, and rocks as the subsurface snow has melted away creating hidden traps.
c. Grassy Slopes, are usually composed of small tussocks of growth rather than one continuous field.
(1) When ascending, step on the upper side of each hummock or tussock, where the ground is more level.
(2) When descending a grassy slope, the traverse technique should be used because of the uneven nature of the ground. A climber can easily build up too much speed and fall if a direct descent is tried. The hop-skip step can be useful on this type of slope. In this technique, the lower leg takes all of the weight, and the upper leg is used only for balance. When traversing, the climber’s uphill foot points in the direction of travel. The downhill foot points about 45 degrees off the direction of travel (downhill). This maintains maximum sole contact and prevents possible downhill ankle roll-out.
Note:
Wet grass can be extremely slippery; be aware of ground cover conditions.
d. Thick Brush is both a help and a hindrance. Brush-filled gullies can provide routes and rally points concealed from observation; on the other hand steep brushy terrain is hazardous to negotiate. Cliffs and steep ravines are hidden traps, and blow downs and thickets can obstruct travel. When brush must be negotiated take the most direct route across the obstacle; look for downed timber to use as bridges through the obstacle; or create a tunnel, standing on lower branches and using upper limbs for support.
e. Scree Slopes. Slopes composed of the smallest rocks are called scree slopes. Scree varies in size from the smallest gravel to about the size of a man’s fist.
(1) Ascending scree slopes is difficult and tiring and should be avoided, if possible. All principles of ascending hard ground and snow apply, but each step is carefully chosen so that the foot does not slide down when weighted. This is done by kicking in with the toe of the upper foot (similar to step-kicking in snow) so that a step is formed in the loose scree. After determining that the step is stable, weight is transferred to the upper leg, the soldier then steps up and repeats the process with the lower foot.
(2) The best method for descending scree slopes is to come straight down the slope using a short shuffling step with the knees bent, back straight, feet pointed downhill, and heels dug in. When several climbers descend a scree slope together, they should be as close together as possible (one behind the other at single arm interval) to prevent injury from dislodged rocks. When the bottom of the slope (or run out zone) cannot be seen, use caution because drop-offs may be encountered.
(3) Scree slopes can be traversed using the ice ax as a third point of contact. Always keep the ax on the uphill side. When the herringbone or diagonal method is used to ascend scree, the ax can be used placing both hands on the top and driving the spike into the scree slope above the climber. The climber uses the ax for balance as he moves up to it, and then repeats the process.
f. Talus Slopes, composed of rocks larger than a man’s fist. When ascending or descending, in talus climbers should always step on the uphill side of rocks and stay alert for movement underfoot. Disturbing unstable talus can cause rockslides. Climbers must stay in close columns while walking through talus so that dislodged rocks do not reach dangerous speeds before reaching lower soldiers. To prevent rock fall injuries, avoid traversing below other climbers. All other basics of mountain walking apply.
MOVEMENT OVER SNOW AND ICE
10-1. MOVEMENT OVER SNOW
On steep slopes in deep snow, the climber may climb straight up facing the slope. The ice ax shaft, driven directly into the snow, provides a quick and effective self-belay in case of a slip—the deeper the shaft penetrates the snow, the better the anchor (Figure 10-1). It is usually best, however, to climb snow-covered slopes in a traversing fashion in order to conserve energy, unless there is significant avalanche danger.


Figure 10-1. Self-belay on snow.

a.The progression from walking on flat terrain to moving on steep terrain is the same as for moving over snow-free terrain. If the snow is packed the sole of the boot will generally hold by kicking steps, even on steep slopes. Where it is difficult to make an effective step with the boot, a cut made with the adze of the ice ax creates an effective step. In these situations crampons should be used for faster and easier movement.
A technique known as glissading may also be used as an easy method of descent and is covered in detail later in this chapter.
10-3. USE OF ICE AX AND CRAMPONS
Movement over snow and ice is almost impossible without an ice ax and or crampons.
a.Ice Ax. When walking on snow or ice, the ice ax can be used as a third point of contact.
(1) Cane Position. The ice ax can be used on gentle slopes as a walking stick or cane (Figure 10-2). The ax is held by the head with the spike down and the pick facing to the rear in preparation for self-arrest. When moving up or down gentle slopes the ice ax is placed in front as the third point of contact, and the climber moves toward it. When traversing, the ax is held on the uphill side, in preparation for a self-arrest.
Figure 10-2. Using the ice ax in the cane position.
(2) Cross Body Position or Port Arms Position. On steeper slopes the ax can be used in the port arms position, or cross body position (Figure 10-3). It is carried across the chest, upslope hand on the shaft, spike towards the slope. The head of the ax is held away from the slope with the pick to the rear in preparation for self-arrest. Ensure the leash is connected to the upslope hand, which allows the ax to be used in the hammer position on the upslope side of the climber. The spike, in this case, is used as an aid for maintaining balance.


Figure 10-3. Ice ax in the cross body or port arms position.

(3) Anchor Position. As the slope continues to steepen, the ax may be used in the anchor position (Figure 10-4). The head is held in the upslope hand and the pick is driven into the slope. The spike is held in the downhill hand and pulled slightly away from the slope to increase the "bite" of the pick into the ice. If the climber is wearing a harness, the pick can be deeply inserted in the ice or hard snow and the ax leash could be connected to the tie-in point on the harness for an anchor (ensure the ax is placed for the intended direction of pull).


Figure 10-4. Ice ax in the anchor position.

(4) Push-Hold Position. (Figure 10-5). The hand is placed on the shaft of the ax just below the head with the pick forward. The pick is driven into the slope at shoulder height. The hand is then placed on the top of the ax head for use as a handhold.


Figure 10-5. Ice ax in the push-hold position.

(5) Dagger Position. Used to place a handhold above shoulder height (Figure 10-6). The hand grasps the head of the ax with the pick forward and the shaft hanging down. The ax is driven into the surface in a stabbing action. The hand is then placed on the ax head for use as a handhold.


Figure 10-6. Ice ax in the dagger position.

(6) Hammer Position. The ax is used like a hammer, sets the pick deepest in any snow or ice (Figure 10-7). On vertical or near-vertical sections, two axes used in the hammer position will often be required.


b. Crampons. Walking in crampons does present difficulties. The same mountain walking principles are used, except that when a leg is advanced it is swung in a slight arc around the fixed foot to avoid locking the crampons or catching them on clothing. The trousers should be bloused. All straps should be secured. The buckles should be located on the outside of each foot.
(1) Two methods of ascent are used on slopes: traversing and straight up.
(a) A traverse on ice or snow looks much like any mountain walking traverse, except that the ankles are rolled so that the crampons are placed flat on the surface (Figure 10-8). On snow the points penetrate easily; on ice the foot must be pressed or stamped firmly to obtain maximum penetration. At the turning points of a traverse, direction is changed with the uphill foot as in mountain walking.


Figure 10-8. Correct and incorrect crampon technique.

(b) A straight up method is for relatively short pitches, since it is more tiring than a traverse. The climber faces directly up the slope and walks straight uphill. As the slope steepens, the herringbone step is used to maintain the flatfoot technique. For short steep pitches, the climber may also face downslope, squatting so the legs almost form a 90-degree angle at the knees, driving the spike of the ice ax into the slope at hip level, and then moving the feet up to the ax (similar to the crab position). This method can be tiring.
(2) A technique known as "front-pointing" may be used for moving straight uphill (Figure 10-9). It is especially useful on steep terrain, in combination with the ice ax in the push-hold, dagger, or hammer position. Front-pointing is easiest with the use of more rigid mountain boots and rigid crampons. The technique is similar to doing calf raises on the tips of the toes and is much more tiring than flat-footing.
(a) The technique starts with the feet approximately shoulder width apart. When a step is taken the climber places the front points of the crampons into the ice with the toe of the boot pointing straight into the slope.
(b) When the front points have bitten into the ice the heel of the boot is lowered slightly so that the first set of vertical points can also bite. The body is kept erect, with the weight centered over the feet as in climbing on rock.

Figure 10-9. Front-pointing with crampons.
c. Vertical Ice. When a climb on ice reaches the 60- to 70-degree angle, two ice axes may be helpful, and will become necessary as the angle approaches 90 degrees. The same basic climbing techniques described in Chapter 6 should be applied. If leashes of the correct length and fit are attached to both axes, it may be possible to hang completely from the axes while moving the feet.
d. Descending with Crampons and Ice Ax. Whenever possible, descend straight down the fall line. As the slope steepens, gradually turn sideways; on steeper slopes, bend at the waist and knees as if sitting, keeping the feet flat to engage all vertical crampon points and keep the weight over the feet as in descending rock slab (Figures 10-10 and 10-11). On steep terrain, assume a cross body or port arms position with the ax, and traverse. Regardless of the technique used, always ensure the points of the crampons are inserted in the snow or ice and take short, deliberate steps to minimize the chance of tripping and falling down the slope.


Figure 10-10. Flat-footing in the crab position.

Normal Progression. The techniques can be used in any combination, dictated by the terrain and skill of the individual. A typical progression could be as follows:
(1) Crampons.
Walking as on flat ground.
Herringbone step straight up the slope.
Traverse with feet flat.
Backing up the slope (crab position).
Front-pointing.
(2) Ice Ax. Use the ice ax in these situations:
Cane position on flat ground.
Cane position on uphill side as slope steepens.
Port arms position with spike on uphill side.
Anchor position with pick on uphill side.
Push-hold position using front-pointing technique.
Dagger position using front-pointing technique.
Hammer position using front-pointing technique.
Climbing Sequence. (Figure 10-12). Begin by positioning the feet in a secure stance and placing the ax in the hammer position as high as possible. Slowly and carefully move the feet to higher positions alternately, and move the hand up the ax shaft. Repeat this until the hand is on top of the head of the ax. Remove the ax and place it at a higher position and begin again.
Figure 10-12. Climbing sequence.
f. Step Cutting. In ascending, steps may be cut straight up the slope, although a traverse will normally be adopted. In descending, a traverse is also the preferred method. When changing direction, a step large enough for both feet and crampons must be made. Once the step is formed, the adze is best used to further shape and clean the step.
(1) Snow. using the inside corner of the adze for cutting. fashion the step so that it slopes slightly inward and is big enough to admit the entire foot. Steps used for resting or for turning must be larger.
(2) Ice. Hard ice requires that the pick of the ax be used. Begin by directing a line of blows at right angles to the slope to make a fracture line along the base of the intended step. This technique will reduce the chance of an unwanted fracture in the ice breaking out the entire step. Next, chop above the fracture line to fashion the step. When using the pick it should be given an outward jerk as it is placed to prevent it from sticking in the ice.
(3) Step Cutting in a Traverse. When cutting steps in a traverse, the preferred cutting sequence is to cut one step at an arm's length from the highest step already cut, then cut one between those two. Cutting ahead one step then cutting an intermediate step keeps all of the steps relatively close to one another and maintains a suitable interval that all personnel can use.
(4) Handholds. If handholds are cut, they should be smaller than footholds, and angled more.


Figure 10-13. Step cutting and handhold cutting.

g. Self-Arrest. The large number of climbers injured or killed while climbing on snow and ice can be attributed to two major failings on the part of the climber: climbing unroped, and a lack of knowledge and experience in the techniques necessary to stop, or arrest, a fall (Figure 10-14). A climber should always carry an ice ax when climbing on steep snow or ice; if a fall occurs, he must retain possession and control of his ice ax if he is to successfully arrest the fall. During movement on steep ice, the ax pick will be in the ice solidly before the body is moved, which should prevent a fall of any significance (this is a self belay not a self-arrest).

CAUTION
Self-arrest requires the ax pick to gradually dig in to slow the descent. Self-arrest is difficult on steep ice because the ice ax pick instantly "bites" into the ice, possibly resulting in either arm or shoulder injury, or the ax is deflected immediately upon contact.


Figure 10-14. Self-arrest technique.


Figure 10-14. Self-arrest technique (continued).

(1) A climber who has fallen may roll or spin; if this happens, the climber must first gain control of his body, whether it is with his ice ax or simply by brute force. Once the roll or spin has been controlled, the climber will find himself in one of four positions.
Head upslope, stomach on the slope, and feet pointed downslope.
Head upslope, back to the slope, and feet pointed downslope.
Head downslope, stomach on the slope, and feet pointed upslope.
Head downslope, back to the slope, and feet pointed upslope.
(2) To place the body in position to arrest from the four basic fall positions the following must be accomplished.
(a) In the first position, the body is in proper relation to the slope for an arrest.
(b) In the second position, the body must first be rotated from face up to face down on the slope. This is accomplished by rolling the body toward the head of the ax.
(c) In the third position, the pick of the ice ax is placed upslope and used as a pivot to bring the body into proper position.
(d) In the fourth position, the head of the ax must be driven into the snow to the climber's side. This will cause the body to rotate into a head up, stomach down position.
(3) The final position when the arrest of the fall is completed should be with the head upslope, stomach on the slope, with the feet pointed downslope. If crampons are not worn, the toe of the boots may be dug into the slope. The ax is held diagonally across the chest, with the head of the ax by one shoulder and the spike near the opposite hip. One hand grasps the head of the ax, with the pick pointed into the slope, while the other hand is on the shaft near the spike, lifting up on it to prevent the spike from digging into the slope.
Note:
If crampons are worn, the feet must be raised to prevent the crampons from digging into the snow or ice too quickly.
(4) When a fall occurs, the climber should immediately grasp the ax with both hands and hold it firmly as described above. Once sufficient control of the body is attained, the climber drives the pick of the ice ax into the slope, increasing the pressure until the fall is arrested. Raising the spike end of the shaft increases the biting action of the pick. It is critical that control of the ice ax be maintained at all times.
10-4. GLISSADING
Glissading is the intentional, controlled, rapid descent, or slide of a mountaineer down a steep slope covered with snow (Figure 10-15). Glissading is similar to skiing, except skis are not used. The same balance and control are necessary, but instead of skis the soles of the feet or the buttocks are used. The only piece of equipment required is an ice ax, which serves as the rudder, brake, and guide. The two basic methods are:
a.Squatting Glissade. accomplished by placing the body in a semi-crouched position with both knees bent and the body weight directly over the feet. The ice ax is grasped with one hand on the head, pick, and adze outboard (away from the body), and the other hand on the shaft. The hand on the shaft grips it firmly in a position that allows control as well as the application of downward pressure on the spike of the ax.
b. Sitting Glissade. It is slower but easier to control. Sitting on the snow with the legs flat, and the heels and feet raised and pointed downslope. The ice ax is firmly grasped in the same manner, with the exception that the hand on the shaft must be locked against the hip for control.
c. Safety. Should never be attempted if the snow cover is thin or on a slope where the bottom cannot be seen, since drop-offs may exist out of view.


Figure 10-15. Glissading techniques.

ROPED CLIMBING
Class 4 and usually on class 5 terrain, ropes must be used.
TYING-IN TO THE CLIMBING ROPE
Some of the older methods of tying directly into the rope require minimal equipment and are relatively easy to inspect; however, they offer little support to the climber. Tying directly into the rope is perfectly safe for many roped party climbs used in training on lower-angled rock.
BELAY TECHNIQUES
In some instances, such as on glaciers, rope team members can often move at the same time, relying on the security of a tight rope and "team arrest" techniques , but not on steep terrain. For the climbing rope to be of any value on steep rock climbs, the rope team must incorporate "belays" into the movement.
Belaying is a method of managing the rope in such a way that, if one person falls, the fall can be halted or "arrested" by another rope team member (belayer). One person climbs at a time, while being belayed from above or below by another. The belayer manipulates the rope so that friction, or a "brake," can be applied to halt a fall. Belay techniques are also used to control the descent of personnel and equipment on fixed rope installations, and for additional safety on rappels and stream crossings.
Setting up a belay remember the following key points:
Select the best possible terrain features for the position and use terrain to your advantage.
Use a well braced, sitting position whenever possible.
Aim and anchor the belay for all possible load directions.
Follow the "minimum" rule for belay anchors-2 for a downward pull, 1 for an upward pull.
Ensure anchor attachments are aligned, independent, and snug.
Stack the rope properly.
Choose a belay technique appropriate for the climbing.
Use a guide carabiner for rope control in all body belays.
Ensure anchor attachments, guide carabiner (if applicable), and rope running to the climber are all on the guidehand side.
The brake hand remains on the rope when belaying.

CAUTION
Never remove the brake hand from the rope while belaying. If the brake hand is removed, there is no belay.
The belay remains in place from the time the belayer commands "BELAY ON" until the climber commands "OFF BELAY."
PROCEDURE FOR MANAGING THE ROPE
A number of different belay techniques are used in modern climbing, ranging from the basic "body belays" to the various "mechanical belays," which incorporate some type of friction device.
a. Whether the rope is wrapped around the body, or run through a friction device, the procedure is basically the same. The belayer performs three basic functions: manipulate the rope to give the climber slack during movement, take up rope to remove excess slack, and apply the brake to halt a fall.
b. The belayer must maintain "total control" of the rope at all times. Meaning the brake hand is NEVER removed. When giving slack, the rope simply slides through the grasp of the brake hand, at times being fed to the climber with the other "feeling" or guide hand. Taking up rope, however, requires a certain technique to ensure the brake hand remains on the rope at all times. The following procedure describes how to take up excess rope and apply the brake in a basic body belay.
(1) Grasping the rope with both hands, place it behind the back and around the hips. The hand on the section of rope between the belayer and the climber would be the guide hand. The other hand is the brake hand.
(2) Take in rope with the brake hand until the arm is fully extended. The guide hand can also help to pull in the rope (Figure 6-21, step 1).
(3) Holding the rope in the brake hand, slide the guide hand out, extending the arm so the guide hand is father away from the body than the brake hand (Figure 6-21, step 2).
(4) Grasp both parts of the rope, to the front of the brake hand, with the guide hand (Figure 6-21, step 3).
(5) Slide the brake hand back towards the body (Figure 6-21, step 4).
(6) Repeat step 5 of Figure 6-21. The brake can be applied at any moment during the procedure. It is applied by wrapping the rope around the front of the hips while increasing grip with the brake hand (Figure 6-21, step 6).


Figure 6-21. Managing the rope.

6-15. CHOOSING A BELAY TECHNIQUE
The choice between body belays and mechanical belays depends largely on equipment available and the amount of load, or fall force to be absorbed.
The basic body belay uses friction between the rope and the clothed body as the rope is pressured across the clothing. It is simple, requiring no special equipment. It gives the belayer the greatest "feel" for the climber, letting him know when to give slack or take up rope. Rope management is quick and easy and is effective when ropes become wet, stiff, and frozen. It will hold low to moderate impact falls well.

CAUTION
The belayer must ensure he is wearing adequate clothing and gloves to protect his body from rope burns.


(1) Sitting Body Belay. is the preferred position and most secure (Figure 6-22). The belayer sits facing the direction where the force of a fall will likely come from, using terrain to his advantage, brace both feet against the rock. It is best to sit in a slight depression, placing the buttocks lower than the feet, and straightening the legs for maximum support. When perfectly aligned, the rope running to the climber will pass between the belayer's feet. Sometimes, the belayer may not be able to sit facing the direction he would like, or both feet cannot be braced well. The leg on the "guide hand" side should then point towards the load. The belayer can also "straddle" a large tree or rock.
In snow or ice the position can be improved by digging depressions into the snow or ice for a seat and footholds.



Figure 6-22. Sitting body belay.

(2) Standing Body Belay. Used on smaller ledges where there is no room to sit (Figure 6-23). What appears at first to be a fairly unstable position can actually be quite secure when belay anchors are placed at or above shoulder height to support the stance when the force will be downward.


Figure 6-23. Standing body belay.

(a) For a body belay to work effectively, the belayer must ensure that the rope runs around the hips properly, and remains there under load when applying the brake. The rope should run around the narrow portion of the pelvic girdle, just below the bony high points of the hips. If the rope runs too high, the force of a fall could injure the belayer's midsection and lower rib cage. If the rope runs too low, the load may pull the rope below the buttocks, dumping the belayer out of position.
The rope is clipped into a carabiner attached to the guide hand side of the seat harness (or bowline-on-a-coil). This "guide carabiner" helps keep the rope in place around the hips and prevents loss of control. (Figure 6-24).


Figure 6-24. Guide carabiner for rope control in a body belay.

b. Mechanical Belay. Used whenever there is potential for the lead climber to take a severe fall. The holding power of a belay device is vastly superior to any body belay. However, rope management is more difficult to master.
(1) Munter Hitch. Requires only a rope and a carabiner (Figure 6-25). The Munter is actually a two-way friction hitch. The Munter hitch will flip back and forth through the carabiner as the belayer switches from giving slack to taking up rope. The carabiner must be large enough, and of the proper design, to allow this function. The locking pear-shaped carabiner, or pearabiner, is designed for the Munter hitch.
(a) The Munter hitch works exceptionally well as a lowering belay off the anchor. As a climbing belay, the carabiner should be attached to the front of the belayer's seat harness. The hitch is tied by forming a loop and a bight in the rope, attaching both to the carabiner. It's fairly easy to place the bight on the carabiner backwards, which forms an obvious, useless hitch. Put some tension on the Munter to ensure it is formed correctly, as depicted in the following illustrations.
(b) The Munter hitch will automatically "lock-up" under load as the brake hand grips the rope. The brake is increased by pulling the slack rope away from the body, towards the load. The belayer must be aware that flipping the hitch DOES NOT change the function of the hands. The hand on the rope running to the climber, or load, is always the guide hand.


Figure 6-25. Munter hitch.

(2) Figure-Eight Device. A versatile piece of equipment and, though developed as a rappel device, has become widely accepted as an effective mechanical belay device (Figure 6-26). The advantage of any mechanical belay is friction required to halt a fall is applied on the rope through the device, rather than around the belayer's body. The device itself provides rope control for upward and downward pulls and excellent friction for halting severe falls. The main principle behind the figure-eight device in belay mode is the friction developing on the rope as it reaches and exceeds the 90-degree angle between the rope entering the device and leaving the device. As a belay device, the figure-eight works well for both belayed climbing and for lowering personnel and equipment on fixed-rope installations.
(a) As a climbing belay, a bight placed into the climbing rope is run through the "small eye" of the device and attached to a locking carabiner at the front of the belayer's seat harness. A short, small diameter safety rope is used to connect the "large eye" of the figure eight to the locking carabiner for control of the device. The guide hand is placed on the rope running to the climber. Rope management is performed as in a body belay. The brake is applied by pulling the slack rope in the brake hand towards the body, locking the rope between the device and the carabiner.
(b) As a lowering belay, the device is normally attached directly to the anchor with the rope routed as in rappelling.


Figure 6-26. Figure-eight device.

(3) Mechanical Camming Device. The mechanical camming device has an internal camming action that begins locking the rope in place as friction is increased. Unlike the other devices, the mechanical camming device can stop a falling climber without any input from the belayer. A few other devices perform similarly to this, but have no moving parts. Some limitations to these type devices are minimum and maximum rope diameters.
ESTABLISHING A BELAY
A belay can be established using either a direct or indirect connection. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. The choice will depend on the intended use of the belay.
a. Direct Belay. The direct belay removes any possible forces from the belayer and places this force completely on the anchor. Used often for rescue installations or to bring a second climber up to a new belay position in conjunction with the Munter hitch, the belay can be placed above the belayer's stance, creating a comfortable position and ease of applying the brake. Also, if the second falls or weights the rope, the belayer is not locked into a position. Direct belays provide no shock-absorbing properties from the belayer's attachment to the system as does the indirect belay; therefore, the belayer is apt to pay closer attention to the belaying process.
b. Indirect Belay. An indirect belay, the most commonly used, uses a belay device attached to the belayer's harness. This type of belay provides dynamic shock or weight absorption by the belayer if the climber falls or weights the rope, which reduces the direct force on the anchor and prevents a severe shock load to the anchor.
c. Belaying on Snow and Ice. The principles of belaying on ice and snow are the same as on rock. Generally, the high-force falls found in rock climbing are not present on snow and ice unless the pitch being climbed is extremely steep.
(1) Boot-Ax Belay. Can be useful in areas where the full length of the ice ax can penetrate the snow. The holding strength is directly related to the firmness of the snow and to the strength of the ice ax shaft. The shaft of the ax is tilted slightly uphill and jammed into the snow. The belayer places his uphill foot against the downhill side of the ax for support. A bight formed in the rope is placed over the boot and around the shaft of the ice ax. The brake is applied by wrapping the rope around the heel of the boot (Figure 10-20).


Figure 10-20 Boot-ax belay

(3) Munter Hitch. This belay technique is also used on snow and ice. When using the hitch off of the anchor, a two-point equalized anchor should be constructed as a minimum.


6-17. SETTING UP A BELAY
In rock climbing, climbers must sometimes make do with marginal protection placements along a route, but belay positions must be made as "bombproof" as possible. Additionally, the belayer must set up the belay in relation to where the fall force will come from. All belay positions are established with the anchor connection to the front of the harness. If the belay is correctly established, the belayer will feel little or no force if the climber falls or has to rest on the rope. Regardless of the actual belay technique used, five basic steps are required to set up a sound belay.
a. Select Position and Stance. Once the climbing line is picked, the belayer selects his position. It's best if the position is off to the side of the actual line, putting the belayer out of the direct path of a potential fall or any rocks kicked loose by the climber. The position should allow the belayer to maintain a comfortable, relaxed stance, as he could be in the position for a fairly long time. Large ledges that allow a well braced, sitting stance are preferred. Look for belay positions close to bombproof natural anchors.
b. Aim the Belay. Determine where the rope leading to the climber will run and the direction the force of a fall will likely come from. When a lead climber begins placing protection, the fall force on the belayer will be in some upward direction, and in line with the first protection placement. If this placement fails under load, the force on the belay could be straight down again. The belayer must aim his belay for all possible load directions, adjusting his position or stance when necessary. The belay can be aimed through an anchor placement to immediately establish an upward pull; however, the belayer must always be prepared for the more severe downward fall force in the event intermediate protection placements fail.
c. Anchor the Belay. For a climbing belay to be considered bombproof, the belayer must be attached to a solid anchor capable of withstanding the highest possible fall force. A solid natural anchor would be ideal, but more often the belayer will have to place pitons or chocks. A single artificial placement should never be considered adequate for anchoring a belay. The rule of thumb is to place two anchors for a downward pull and one anchor for an upward pull. The following key points also apply to anchoring belays.
(1) Each anchor must be placed in line with the direction of pull it is intended to support.
(2) Each anchor attachment must be rigged "independently" so a failure of one will not shock load remaining placements or cause the belayer to be pulled out of position.
(3) The attachment between the anchor and the belayer must be snug to support the stance. Both belayer's stance and belay anchors should absorb the force of a fall.
(4) It is best for the anchors to be placed relatively close to the belayer with short attachments. If the climber has to be tied-off in an emergency, say after a severe fall, the belayer can attach a Prusik sling to the climbing rope, reach back, and connect the sling to one of the anchors. The load can be placed on the Prusik and the belayer can come out of the system to render help.
(5) The belayer can use either a portion of the climbing rope or slings of the appropriate length to connect himself to the anchors. It's best to use the climbing rope whenever possible, saving the slings for the climb. The rope is attached using either figure eight loops or clove hitches. Clove hitches have the advantage of being easily adjusted. If the belayer has to change his stance at some point, he can reach back with the guide hand and adjust the length of the attachment through the clove hitch as needed.
(6) The anchor attachments should also help prevent the force of a fall from "rotating" the belayer out of position. To accomplish this, the climbing rope must pass around the "guide-hand side" of the body to the anchors. Sling attachments are connected to the belayer's seat harness (or bowline-on-a-coil) on the guide-hand side.
(7) Arrangement of rope and sling attachments may vary according to the number and location of placements. Follow the guidelines set forth and remember the key points for belay anchors; "in line", "independent", and "snug". Figure 6-27 shows an example of a common arrangement, attaching the rope to the two "downward" anchors and a sling to the "upward" anchor. Note how the rope is connected from one of the anchors back to the belayer. This is not mandatory, but often helps "line-up" the second attachment.


Figure 6-27 Anchoring a belay

d. Stack the Rope. Once the belayer is anchored into position, he must stack the rope to ensure it is free of twists and tangles that might hinder rope management in the belay.
(1) On small ledges, the rope can be stacked on top of the anchor attachments if there is no other place to lay it, but make sure to stack it carefully so it won't tangle with the anchored portion of the rope or other slings. The belayer must also ensure that the rope will not get tangled around his legs or other body parts as it "feeds" out.
(2) The rope should never be allowed to hang down over the ledge. If it gets caught in the rock below the position, the belayer may have to tie-off the climber and come out of the belay to free the rope. The final point to remember is the rope must be stacked "from the belayer's end" so the rope running to the climber comes off the "top" of the stacked pile.
The final step of the procedure is to attach the belay. With the rope properly stacked, the belayer takes the rope coming off the top of the pile, removes any slack between himself and the climber, and applies the actual belay technique. If using a body belay, ensure the rope is clipped into the guide carabiner.
(1) The belayer should make one quick, final inspection of his belay. If the belay is set up correctly, the anchor attachments, guide carabiner if applicable, and the rope running to the climber will all be on the "guide hand" side, which is normally closest to the rock (Figure 6-28). If the climber takes a fall, the force, if any, should not have any negative effect on the belayer's involvement in the system. The brake hand is out away from the slope where it won't be jammed between the body and the rock. The guide hand can be placed on the rock to help support the stance when applying the brake.
(2) When the belayer is satisfied with his position, he gives the signal, "BELAY ON!". When belaying the "second", the same procedure is used to set up the belay. Unless the belay is aimed for an upward pull, the fall force is of course downward and the belayer is usually facing away from the rock, the exception being a hanging belay on a vertical face. If the rope runs straight down to the climber and the anchors are directly behind the position, the belayer may choose to brake with the hand he feels most comfortable with. Anchor attachments, guide carabiner, and rope running to the climber through the guide hand must still be aligned on the same side to prevent the belayer from being rotated out of position, unless the belayer is using an improvised harness and the anchor attachment is at the rear.
VERBAL COMMANDS
ROPE TUG COMMANDS
Sometimes the loudest scream cannot be heard when the climber and belayer are far apart. This is especially true in windy conditions, or when the climber is around a corner, above an overhang, or at the back of a ledge. It may be necessary to use a series of "tugs" on the rope. To avoid any possible confusion with interpretation of multiple rope tug commands, use only one.
a. While a lead climb is in progress, the most important command is "BELAY ON." This command is given only by the climber when the climber is anchored and is prepared for the second to begin climbing. With the issue of this command, the second knows the climber is anchored and the second prepares to climb.
b. For a rope tug command, the leader issues three distinct tugs on the rope AFTER anchoring and putting the second on belay. This is the signal for "BELAY ON" and signals the second to climb when ready. The new belayer keeps slack out of the rope.
10-6. ROPED CLIMBING ON ICE AND SNOW
When crevasses are expected, a three-man rope team is recommended.
a.Tie-In Method. same as for rock climbing; however, when moving over snow-covered glaciers, the tie-in is modified slightly. (See paragraph 10-7, Movement on Glaciers, for more information).
Movement on gentle or moderate slopes all climbers move simultaneously. Normally the climbers move in single file using the steps created by the lead climber and improving them when necessary. The rope between the climbers should be fully extended and kept reasonably tight. Should any member fall, the other members immediately drop into a self-arrest position. On steeper slopes, the climbers use techniques as in rock climbing.
d. Fixed Ropes. Recommended for moving units through icefall areas on glaciers or other steep ice conditions. The procedures are basically the same as on rock with the exception that anchors need more attention, both in initial placement and in subsequent inspection, and steps may have to be cut to assist personnel.

In military mountaineering, the primary mission of a roped climbing team is to "fix" a route with some type of rope installation to assist movement of less trained personnel in the unit.
6-22. LEAD CLIMBING
A lead climb consists of a belayer, a leader or climber, rope(s), and webbing or hardware used to establish anchors or protect the climb. As he climbs the route, the leader emplaces "intermediate" anchors, and the climbing rope is connected to these anchors with a carabiner. These "intermediate" anchors protect the climber against a fall-thus the term "protecting the climb."
Note:
Intermediate anchors are commonly referred to as "protection," "pro," "pieces," "pieces of pro," "pro placements," and so on. For standardization within this publication, these specific anchors will be referred to as "protection;" anchors established for other purposes, such as rappel points, belays, or other rope installations, will be referred to as "anchors."
CAUTION
During all lead climbing, each climber in the team is either anchored or being belayed.
a. Lead climbing with two climbers is the preferred combination for movement on difficult terrain. Two climbers are at least twice as fast as three and are efficient for installing a "fixed rope," probably the most widely used rope installation in the mountains. A group of three climbers are typically used on moderate snow, ice, and snow-covered glaciers where the rope team can often move at the same time.
b. When the difficulty of the climbing is within the "leading ability" of both climbers, valuable time can be saved by "swinging leads." This is normally the most efficient method for climbing multipitch routes. The second finishes cleaning the first pitch and continues climbing, taking on the role of lead climber. The belayer simply adjusts his position, re-aiming the belay once the new leader begins placing protection. Swinging leads, or "leap frogging," should be planned before starting the climb so the leader knows to anchor the upper belay for both upward and downward pulls during the setup.
The leader must ensure the route is well within his ability and the ability of the second. The lead climber carries most of the climbing equipment in order to place protection along the route and set up the next belay. The leader must also ensure that the second has the necessary equipment, such as a piton hammer, nut tool, etc., to remove any protection that the leader may place.
(1) The leader is responsible for emplacing protection frequently enough and in such a manner that, in the event that either the leader or the second should fall, the fall will be neither long enough nor hard enough to result in injury. The leader must also ensure that the rope is routed in a way that will allow it to run freely through the protection placements, thus minimizing friction, or "rope drag".
(2) The other member of the climbing team, the belayer (sometimes referred to as the "second"), is responsible for belaying the leader, removing the belay anchor, and retrieving the protection placed by the leader between belay positions (also called "cleaning the pitch").
(3) Before the climb starts, the second will normally set up the first belay while the leader is arranging his rack. When the belay is ready, the belayer signals, "BELAY ON", affirming that the belay is "on" and the rope will be managed as necessary. When the leader is ready, he double checks the belay.
(4) While belaying, the second must pay close attention to the climber's every move, if he cannot see the climber, he must "feel" the climber through the rope. Unless told otherwise by the climber, the belayer can slowly give slack on the rope as the climber proceeds. The belayer should keep just enough slack in the rope so the climber does not have to pull it through the belay. If the climber wants a tighter rope, it can be called for.
(5) As the leader protects the climb, slack will sometimes be needed to place the rope through the carabiner (clipping), in a piece of protection above the tie-in point on the leaders harness. In this situation, the leader gives the command "SLACK". When the leader has completed the connection, or the clip, the command "TAKE ROPE" is given.
(6) The leader continues on the route until either a designated belay location is reached or he is at the end of or near the end of the rope. At this position, the leader sets an anchor, connects to the anchor and signals "OFF BELAY". The belayer prepares to climb by removing all but at least one of his anchors and secures the remaining equipment. The belayer remains attached to at least one anchor until the command "BELAY ON" is given.

The leader will assemble, or "rack," the necessary equipment onto his harness or onto slings around the head and shoulder. A typical leader "rack" consists of:
Six to eight small wired stoppers on a carabiner.
Four to six medium to large wired stoppers on a carabiner.
Assorted hexentrics, each on a separate carabiner.
SLCDs of required size, each on a separate carabiner.
Five to ten standard length runners, with two carabiners on each.
Two to three double length runners, with two carabiners on each.
Extra carabiners.
Nut tool.
Note:
The route chosen will dictate, to some degree, the necessary equipment. Members of a climbing team may need to consolidate gear to climb a particular route.
(2) The belayer and the leader both should carry many duplicate items while climbing.
Short Prusik sling.
Long Prusik sling.
Cordellette.
10 feet of 1-inch webbing.
20 feet of 1-inch webbing.
Belay device (a combination belay/rappel device is multifunctional).
Rappel device (a combination belay/rappel device is multifunctional).
Large locking carabiner (pear shape carabiners are multifunctional).
Extra carabiners.
Nut tool (if stoppers are carried).
Note:
If using an over the shoulder gear sling, place the items in order from smallest to the front and largest to the rear.
e. Leading a difficult pitch is the most hazardous task in roped climbing. The lead climber may be exposed to potentially long, hard falls and must exercise keen judgment in route selection, placement of protection, and routing of the climbing rope through the protection. The leader should try to keep the climbing line as direct as possible to the next belay to allow the rope to run smoothly through the protection with minimal friction. Protection should be placed whenever the leader feels he needs it, and BEFORE moving past a difficult section.
CAUTION
The climber must remember he will fall twice the distance from his last piece of protection before the rope can even begin to stop him.


Placing Protection. Generally, protection is placed from one stable position to the next. The anchor should be placed as high as possible to reduce the potential fall distance between placements. If the climbing is difficult, protection should be placed more frequently. If the climbing becomes easier, protection can be placed farther apart, saving hardware for difficult sections. On some routes an extended diagonal or horizontal movement, known as a traverse, is required. As the leader begins this type of move, he must consider the second's safety as well as his own. The potential fall of the second will result in a pendulum swing if protection is not adequate to prevent this. The danger comes from any objects in the swinging path of the second.
CAUTION
Leader should place protection prior to, during, and upon completion of any traverse. This will minimize the potential swing, or pendulum, for both the leader and second if either should fall.
(2) Correct Clipping Technique. Once an anchor is placed, the climber "clips" the rope into the carabiner (Figure 6-29). As a carabiner hangs from the protection, the rope can be routed through the carabiner in two possible ways. One way will allow the rope to run smoothly as the climber moves past the placement; the other way will often create a dangerous situation in which the rope could become "unclipped" from the carabiner if the leader were to fall on this piece of protection. In addition, a series of incorrectly clipped carabiners may contribute to rope drag. When placing protection, the leader must ensure the carabiner on the protection does not hang with the carabiner gate facing the rock; when placing protection in a crack ensure the carabiner gate is not facing into the crack.
Grasp the rope with either hand with the thumb pointing down the rope towards the belayer
Pull enough rope to reach the carabiner with a bight
Note the direction the carabiner is hanging from the protection
Place the bight into the carabiner so that, when released, the rope does not cause the carabiner to twist.
(a) If the route changes direction, clipping the carabiner will require a little more thought. Once leaving that piece of protection, the rope may force the carabiner to twist if not correctly clipped. If the clip is made correctly, a rotation of the clipped carabiner to ensure that the gate is not resting against the rock may be all that is necessary.
CAUTION
Ensure the carabiner gate is not resting against a protrusion or crack edge in the rock surface; the rock may cause the gate to open.
(b) Once the rope is clipped into the carabiner, the climber should check to see that it is routed correctly by pulling on the rope in the direction it will travel when the climber moves past that position.
(c) Another potential hazard peculiar to leading should be eliminated before the climber continues. The carabiner is attached to the anchor or runner with the gate facing away from the rock and opening down for easy insertion of the rope. However, in a leader fall, it is possible for the rope to run back over the carabiner as the climber falls below the placement. If the carabiner is left with the gate facing the direction of the route there is a chance that the rope will open the gate and unclip itself entirely from the placement. To prevent this possibility, the climber should ensure that after the clip has been made, the gate is facing away from the direction of the route. There are two ways to accomplish this: determine which direction the gate will face before the protection or runner is placed or once clipped, rotate the carabiner upwards 180 degrees. This problem is more apt to occur if bent gate carabiners are used. Straight gate ovals or "Ds" are less likely to have this problem and are stronger and are highly recommended. Bent gate carabiners are easier to clip the rope into and are used mostly on routes with bolts preplaced for protection. Bent gate carabiners are not recommended for many climbing situations.


Figure 6-29 Clipping on to protection

(3) Reducing Rope Drag; Using Runners. No matter how direct the route, the climber will often encounter problems with "rope drag" through the protection positions. The friction created by rope drag will increase to some degree every time the rope passes through a carabiner, or anchor. It will increase dramatically if the rope begins to "zigzag" as it travels through the carabiners. To prevent this, the placements should be positioned so the rope creates a smooth, almost straight line as it passes through the carabiners (Figure 6-30). Minimal rope drag is an inconvenience; severe rope drag may actually pull the climber off balance, inducing a fall.


Figure 6-30 Use of slings on protection

CAUTION
Rope drag can cause confusion when belaying the second or follower up to a new belay position. Rope drag can be mistaken for the climber, causing the belayer to not take in the necessary slack in the rope and possibly resulting in a serious fall.
(a) If it is not possible to place all the protection so the carabiners form a straight line as the rope moves through, you should "extend" the protection (Figure 6-31). Do this by attaching an appropriate length sling, or runner, to the protection to extend the rope connection in the necessary direction. The runner is attached to the protection's carabiner while the rope is clipped into a carabiner at the other end of the runner. Extending placements with runners will allow the climber to vary the route slightly while the rope continues to run in a relatively straight line.


Figure 6-31 Use of slings to extend placement positions

(b) Not only is rope drag a hindrance, it can cause undue movement of protection as the rope tightens between any "out of line" placements. Rope drag through chock placements can be dangerous. As the climber moves above the placements, an outward or upward pull from rope drag may cause correctly set chocks to pop out, even when used "actively". Most all chocks placed for leader protection should be extended with a runner, even if the line is direct to eliminate the possibility of movement.
(c) Wired chocks are especially prone to wiggling loose as the rope pulls on the stiff cable attachment. All wired chocks used for leader protection should be extended to reduce the chance of the rope pulling them out (Figure 6-32). Some of the larger chocks, such as roped Hexentrics and Tri-Cams, have longer slings pre-attached that will normally serve as an adequate runner for the placement. Chocks with smaller sling attachments must often be extended with a runner. Many of today's chocks are manufactured with pre-sewn webbing installed instead of cable.


Figure 6-32 Use of sling on a wired stopper

(d) When a correctly placed piton is used for protection, it will normally not be affected by rope drag. A correctly placed piton is generally a multi-directional anchor, therefore, rope drag through pitons will usually only affect the leader's movements but will continue to protect as expected.
(e) Rope drag will quite often move SLCDs out of position, or "walk" them deeper into the crack than initially placed, resulting in difficult removal or inability to remove them at all. Furthermore, most cases of SLCD movement result in the SLCD moving to a position that does not provide protection in the correct direction or no protection at all due to the lobes being at different angles from those at the original position.
Note:
Any placement extended with a runner will increase the distance of a potential fall by the actual length of the sling. Try to use the shortest runners possible, ensuring they are long enough to function properly.
f. Belaying the follower is similar to belaying a top-roped climb in that the follower is not able to fall any farther than rope stretch will allow. This does not imply there is no danger in following. Sharp rocks, rock fall, and inadequately protected traverses can result in damage to equipment or injury to the second.
g. Following, or seconding, a leader has a variety of responsibilities. The second has to issue commands to the leader, as well as follow the leader's commands. Once the lead climber reaches a good belay position, he immediately establishes an anchor and connects to it. When this is completed he can signal "OFF BELAY" to the belayer. The second can now remove the leader's belay and prepare to climb. The second must remain attached to at least one of the original anchors while the leader is preparing the next belay position. The removed materials and hardware can be organized and secured on the second's rack in preparation to climb.
(1) When the leader has established the new belay position and is ready to belay the follower, the "new" belayer signals "BELAY ON." The second, now the climber, removes any remaining anchor hardware/materials and completes any final preparations. The belayer maintains tension on the rope, unless otherwise directed, while the final preparations are taking place, since removal of these remaining anchors can introduce slack into the rope. When the second is ready, he can, as a courtesy, signal "CLIMBING," and the leader can, again as a courtesy, reply with "CLIMB."
(2) Upon signaling "BELAY ON," the belayer must remove and keep all slack from the rope. (This is especially important as in many situations the belayer cannot see the follower. A long pitch induces weight and sometimes "drag" on the rope and the belayer above will have difficulty distinguishing these from a rope with no slack.)
h. When removing protection, the man cleaning the pitch should rack it properly to facilitate the exchange and or arrangement of equipment at the end of the pitch. When removing the protection, or "cleaning the pitch", SLCDs or chocks may be left attached to the rope to prevent loss if they are accidentally dropped during removal. If necessary, the hardware can remain on the rope until the second reaches a more secure stance. If removing a piton, the rope should be unclipped from the piton to avoid the possibility of damaging the rope with a hammer strike.
(1) The second may need to place full body weight on the rope to facilitate use of both hands for protection removal by giving the command "TENSION." The second must also ensure that he does not climb faster than the rope is being taken in by the belayer. If too much slack develops, he should signal "TAKE ROPE" and wait until the excess is removed before continuing the climb. Once the second completes the pitch, he should immediately connect to the anchor. Once secured, he can signal "OFF BELAY." The leader removes the belay, while remaining attached to an anchor. The equipment is exchanged or organized in preparation for the next pitch or climb.
(2) When the difficulty of the climbing is within the "leading ability" of both climbers, valuable time can be saved by "swinging leads." This is normally the most efficient method for climbing multi-pitch routes. The second finishes cleaning the first pitch and continues climbing, taking on the role of lead climber. Unless he requires equipment from the belayer or desires a break, he can climb past the belay and immediately begin leading. The belayer simply adjusts his position, re-aiming the belay once the new leader begins placing protection. Swinging leads, or "leap frogging," should be planned before starting the climb so the leader knows to anchor the upper belay for both upward and downward pulls during the setup.
6-23. AID CLIMBING
When a route is too difficult to free climb and is unavoidable, if the correct equipment is available you might aid climb the route. Aid climbing consists of placing protection and putting full body weight on the piece. This allows you to hang solely on the protection you place, giving you the ability to ascend more difficult routes than you can free climb. Clean aid consists of using SLCDs and chocks, and is the simplest form of aid climbing.
a. Equipment. Aid climbing can be accomplished with various types of protection. Regardless of the type of protection used, the method of aid climbing is the same. In addition to the equipment for free climbing, other specialized equipment will be needed.
(1) Pitons. Pitons are used the same as for free climbing. Most piton placements will require the use of both hands. Piton usage will usually leave a scar in the rock just by virtue of the hardness of the piton and the force required to set it with a hammer. Swinging a hammer to place pitons will lead to climber fatigue sooner than clean aid. Since pitons are multidirectional, the strength of a well-placed piton is more secure than most clean aid protection. Consider other forms of protection when noise could be hazardous to tactics.
(2) Bolts. Bolts are used when no other protection will work. They are a more permanent form of protection and more time is needed to place them. Placing bolts creates more noise whether drilled by hand or by motorized drill. Bolts used in climbing are a multi-part expanding system pounded into predrilled holes and then tightened to the desired torque with a wrench or other tool. Bolts are used in many ways in climbing today. The most common use is with a hanger attached and placed for anchors in face climbing. However, bolts can be used for aid climbing, with or without the hanger.
(a) Placing bolts for aid climbing takes much more time than using pitons or clean aid. Bolting for aid climbing consists of consecutive bolts about 2 feet apart. Drilling a deep enough hole takes approximately thirty minutes with a hand drill and up to two minutes with a powered hammer drill. A lot of time and work is expended in a short distance no matter how the hole is drilled. (The weight of a powered hammer drill becomes an issue in itself.) Noise will also be a factor in both applications. A constant pounding with a hammer on the hand drill or the motorized pounding of the powered drill may alert the enemy to the position. The typical climbing bolt/hanger combination normally is left in the hole where it was placed.
(b) Other items that can be used instead of the bolt/hanger combination are the removable and reusable "spring-loaded removable bolts" such as rivets (hex head threaded bolts sized to fit tightly into the hole and pounded in with a hammer), split-shaft rivets, and some piton sizes that can be pounded into the holes. When using rivets or bolts without a hanger, place a loop of cable over the head and onto the shaft of the rivet or bolt and attach a carabiner to the other end of the loop (a stopper with the chock slid back will suffice). Rivet hangers are available that slide onto the rivet or bolt after it is placed and are easily removed for reuse. Easy removal means a slight loss of security while in use.
(3) SLCDs. SLCDs are used the same as for free climbing, although in aid climbing, full body weight is applied to the SLCD as soon as it is placed.
(4) Chocks. Chocks are used the same as for free climbing, although in aid climbing, weight is applied to the chock as soon as it is placed.
(5) Daisy Chains. Daisy chains are tied or presewn loops of webbing with small tied or presewn loops approximately every two inches. The small loops are just large enough for two or three carabiners. Two daisy chains should be girth-hitched to the tie-in point in the harness.
(6) Etriers (or Aiders). Etriers (aiders) are tied or presewn webbing loops with four to six tied or presewn internal loops, or steps, approximately every 12 inches. The internal loops are large enough to easily place one booted foot into. At least two etriers (aiders) should be connected by carabiner to the free ends of the daisy chains.
(7) Fifi Hook. A fifi hook is a small, smooth-surfaced hook strong enough for body weight. The fifi hook should be girth-hitched to the tie-in point in the harness and is used in the small loops of the daisy chain. A carabiner can be used in place of the fifi hook, although the fifi hook is simpler and adequate.
(8) Ascenders. Ascenders are mechanical devices that will move easily in one direction on the rope, but will lock in place if pushed or pulled the other direction. (Prusiks can be used but are more difficult than ascenders.)
b. Technique. The belay will be the same as in normal lead climbing and the rope will be routed through the protection the same way also. The big difference is the movement up the rock. With the daisy chains, aiders, and fifi hook attached to the rope tie-in point of the harness as stated above, and secured temporarily to a gear loop or gear sling, the climb continues as follows:
(1) The leader places the first piece of protection as high as can safely be reached and attaches the appropriate sling/carabiner
(2) Attach one daisy chain/aider group to the newly placed protection
(3) Clip the rope into the protection, (the same as for normal lead climbing)
(4) Insure the protection is sound by weighting it gradually; place both feet, one at a time, into the steps in the aider, secure your balance by grasping the top of the aider with your hands.
(5) When both feet are in the aider, move up the steps until your waist is no higher than the top of the aider.
(6) Place the fifi hook (or substituted carabiner) into the loop of the daisy chain closest to the daisy chain/aider carabiner, this effectively shortens the daisy chain; maintain tension on the daisy chain as the hook can fall out of the daisy chain loop if it is unweighted.
Note:
Moving the waist higher than the top of the aider is possible, but this creates a potential for a fall to occur even though you are on the aider and "hooked" close to the protection with the daisy chain. As the daisy chain tie-in point on the harness moves above the top of the aider, you are no longer supported from above by the daisy chain, you are now standing above your support. From this height, the fifi hook can easily fall out of the daisy chain loop if it is unweighted. If this happens, you could fall the full length of the daisy chain resulting in a static fall on the last piece of protection placed.
(7) Release one hand from the aider and place the next piece of protection, again, as high as you can comfortably reach; if using pitons or bolts you may need both hands free- "lean" backwards slowly, and rest your upper body on the daisy chain that you have "shortened" with the fifi hook
(8) Clip the rope into the protection
(9) Attach the other daisy chain/aider group to the next piece of protection
(10) Repeat entire process until climb is finished
c. Seconding. When the pitch is completed, the belayer will need to ascend the route. To ascend the route, use ascenders instead of Prusiks, ascenders are much faster and safer than Prusiks. Attach each ascender to a daisy chain/aider group with carabiners. To adjust the maximum reach/height of the ascenders on the rope, adjust the effective length of the daisy chains with a carabiner the same as with the fifi hook; the typical height will be enough to hold the attached ascender in the hand at nose level. When adjusted to the correct height, the arms need not support much body weight. If the ascender is too high, you will have difficulty reaching and maintaining a grip on the handle.
(1) Unlike lead climbing, there will be a continuous load on the rope during the cleaning of the route, this would normally increase the difficulty of removing protection. To make this easier, as you approach the protection on the ascenders, move the ascenders, one at a time, above the piece. When your weight is on the rope above the piece, you can easily unclip and remove the protection.
CAUTION
If both ascenders should fail while ascending the pitch, a serious fall could result. To prevent this possibility, tie-in short on the rope every 10-20 feet by tying a figure eight loop and clipping it into the harness with a separate locking carabiner as soon as the ascent is started. After ascending another 20 feet, repeat this procedure. Do not unclip the previous figure eight until the new knot is attached to another locking carabiner. Clear each knot as you unclip it.
Notes:
1.
Ensure the loops formed by the short tie-ins do not catch on anything below as you ascend.
2. If the nature of the rock will cause the "hanging loop" of rope, formed by tying in at the end of the rope, to get caught as you move upward, do not tie into the end of the rope.
(2) Seconding an aid pitch can be done in a similar fashion as seconding free-climbed pitches. The second can be belayed from above as the second "climbs" the protection. However, the rope is unclipped from the protection before the aider/daisy chain is attached.
d. Seconding Through a Traverse. While leading an aid traverse, the climber is hanging on the protection placed in front of the current position. If the second were to clean the section by hanging on the rope while cleaning, the protection will be pulled in more than one direction, possibly resulting in the protection failing. To make this safer and easier, the second should hang on the protection just as the leader did. As the second moves to the beginning of the traverse, one ascender/daisy chain/aider group is removed from the rope and clipped to the protection with a carabiner, (keep the ascenders attached to the daisy chain/aider group for convenience when the traverse ends). The second will negotiate the traverse by leapfrogging the daisy chain/aider groups on the next protection just as the leader did. Cleaning is accomplished by removing the protection as it is passed when all weight is removed from it. This is in effect a self-belay. The second maintains a shorter safety tie-in on the rope than for vertical movement to reduce the possibility of a lengthy pendulum if the protection should pull before intended.
e. Clean Aid Climbing. Clean aid climbing consists of using protection placed without a hammer or drill involvement: chocks, SLCDs, hooks, and other protection placed easily by hand. This type of aid climbing will normally leave no trace of the climb when completed. When climbing the aiders on clean aid protection, ensure the protection does not "move" from it's original position.
(1) Hooks are any device that rests on the rock surface without a camming or gripping action. Hooks are just what the name implies, a curved piece of hard steel with a hole in one end for webbing attachment. The hook blade shape will vary from one model to another, some have curved or notched "blades" to better fit a certain crystal shape on a face placement. These types of devices due to their passive application, are only secure while weighted by the climber.
(2) Some featureless sections of rock can be negotiated with hook use, although bolts can be used. Hook usage is faster and quieter but the margin of safety is not there unless hooks are alternated with more active forms of protection. If the last twenty foot section of a route is negotiated with hooks, a forty foot fall could result.
6-24. THREE-MAN CLIMBING TEAM
Often times a movement on steep terrain will require a team of more than two climbers, which involves more difficulties. A four-man team (or more) more than doubles the difficulty found in three men climbing together. A four-man team should be broken down into two groups of two unless prevented by a severe lack of gear.
a. Given one rope, a three-man team is at a disadvantage on a steep, belayed climb. It takes at least twice as long to climb an average length pitch because of the third climber and the extra belaying required. The distance between belay positions will be halved if only one rope is used because one climber must tie in at the middle of the rope. Two ropes are recommended for a team of three climbers.
Note:
Time and complications will increase when a three-man team uses only one rope. For example: a 100-foot climb with a 150-foot rope would normally require two belays for two climbers; a 100-foot climb with a 150-foot rope would require six belays for three climbers.
b. At times a three-man climb may be unavoidable and personnel should be familiar with the procedure. Although a team of three may choose from many different methods, only two are described below. If the climb is only one pitch, the methods will vary.
CAUTION
When climbing with a team of three, protected traverses will require additional time. The equipment used to protect the traverse must be left in place to protect both the second and third climbers.
(1) The first method can be used when the belay positions are not large enough for three men. If using one rope, two climbers tie in at each end and the other at the mid point. When using two ropes, the second will tie in at one end of both ropes, and the other two climbers will each tie in to the other ends. The most experienced individual is the leader, or number 1 climber. The second, or number 2 climber, is the stronger of the remaining two and will be the belayer for both number 1 and number 3. Number 3 will be the last to climb. Although the number 3 climber does no belaying in this method, each climber should be skilled in the belay techniques required. The sequence for this method (in one pitch increments) is as follows (repeated until the climb is complete):
(a) Number 1 ascends belayed by number 2. Number 2 belays the leader up the first pitch while number 3 is simply anchored to the rock for security (unless starting off at ground level) and manages the rope between himself and number 2. When the leader completes the pitch, he sets up the next belay and belays number 2 up.
(b) Number 2 ascends belayed by number 1, and cleans the route (except for traverses). Number 2 returns the hardware to the leader and belays him up the next pitch. When the leader completes this pitch, he again sets up a new belay. When number 2 receives "OFF BELAY" from the leader, he changes ropes and puts number 3 on belay. He should not have to change anchor attachments because the position was already aimed for a downward as well as an upward pull when he belayed the leader.
(c) Number 3 ascends belayed by number 2. When number 3 receives "BELAY ON," he removes his anchor and climbs to number 2's position. When the pitch is completed he secures himself to one of number 2's belay anchors. When number 1's belay is ready, he brings up number 2 while number 3 remains anchored for security. Number 2 again cleans the pitch and the procedure is continued until the climb is completed.
(d) In this method, number 3 performs no belay function. He climbs when told to do so by number 2. When number 3 is not climbing, he remains anchored to the rock for security. The standard rope commands are used; however, the number 2 climber may include the trailing climber's name or number in the commands to avoid confusion as to who should be climbing.
(d) Normally, only one climber would be climbing at a time; however, the number 3 climber could ascend a fixed rope to number 2's belay position using proper ascending technique, with no effect on the other two members of the team. This would save time for a team of three, since number 2 would not have to belay number 3 and could be either belaying number 1 to the next belay or climbing to number 1. If number 3 is to ascend a fixed rope to the next belay position, the rope will be loaded with number 3's weight, and positioned directly off the anchors established for the belay. The rope should be located so it does not contact any sharp edges. The rope to the ascending number 3 could be secured to a separate anchor, but this would require additional time and gear.
(2) The second method uses either two ropes or a doubled rope, and number 2 and number 3 climb simultaneously. This requires either a special belay device that accepts two ropes, such as the tuber type, or with two Munter hitches. The ropes must travel through the belay device(s) without affecting each other.
(a) As the leader climbs the pitch, he will trail a second rope or will be tied in with a figure eight in the middle of a doubled rope. The leader reaches the next belay position and establishes the anchor and then places both remaining climbers on belay. One remaining climber will start the ascent toward the leader and the other will start when a gap of at least 10 feet is created between the two climbers. The belayer will have to remain alert for differences in rope movement and the climbers will have to climb at the same speed. One of the "second" climbers also cleans the pitch.
(b) Having at least two experienced climbers in this team will also save time. The belayer will have additional requirements to meet as opposed to having just one second. The possible force on the anchor will be twice that of one second. The second that is not cleaning the pitch can climb off route, but staying on route will usually prevent a possible swing if stance is not maintained.




update 2/7/11 here what I have done is inserted the text correctly from my file i.e. with all text clues italics bold underline etc. I well be updating more sections and adding info now.
Conduct of engagements

1) Flash report:

This is individuals or units checking in with superiors, if things just don’t seem right. Something out of the ordinary happens. First signs of trouble i.e. spotting the enemy or especially if shooting starts. This is so no one gets wiped out with out someone knowing something about situation, waiting to hear from you or sending help. In jungle thick wet vegetation muffles sound greatly contact up front or with point man may not be heard by entire unit. Hence word well have to be passed back down the line i.e. members well sound off (CONTACT). With gunfire during MOUT, one shot maybe thought of as a backfire two or three is gunfire.

Pre- attack warning signs: lack of activity by locals, lights being out especially when no children are playing. “We call it the absence of the normal and the presence of the abnormal.” Running over rocks while traveling in vehicles, thinking it was enemy fire.
These pre-attack warning signs could also include,
Post attack signatures: spent castings, impact marks (maybe chipped bark on a tree) or bullet holes, downed vegetation/leaves, blood, drag marks indicating removal of the WIA or KIA. Fighting holes i.e. (hastily prepared sites) scorch marks on sand bags, walls or ground, this from muzzle flash. Shadows forming long dark streaks in snow along firing lanes, extending out from fighting holes. Ice fogs accrue at minus 20 degrees or below, this is rounds crystallizing water vapor in the air, and forming a contrail like streak along the rounds trajectory. Will remain under still conditions for up to (30) minutes. Contrails from mortar and rocket rounds too.
Beyond 400 yards flak jacket and helmets make impacts non-fatal or harmless. Interceptor vest cons; Marines don’t know they’ve been hit i.e. fired upon. Impact trauma i.e. damage to surface allowed by test, a maximum of 44mm/2” diameter. Bullet flattened and twisted out of shape, meaning it has been ricocheted off of something.

Immediate action: with first shots unit leader dose a row call, inquires about injuries with in the unit. Ideally, he would just receive this info without having to inquire about it. You could use alphabetical order within unit. British using T-1 thru 3 i.e. levels of seriousness with WIA, T - 4 is a KIA. Depending on the foe’s range for one thing, IMO it would be best to make the most of, sign language i.e. hand signals to keep from revealing numbers and everyone’s locations to the foe. This would require word being passed along by others as everyone might not be visible to unit leader. Thus terrain, darkness or other visual difficulties may require sounding off with information especially “medical request” i.e. with urgency for care.

Any Marine who has seen the enemy, reports information simply as (who) including numbers of persons and weapons or equipment observed at a minimum. Examples; one person maybe described in the fallowing way, start by height “6 foot, 180 lbs, fallowed by hair and eyes if noted. Ideally, you maybe able to compare the subject to a well known actor or actress only needing to add short/tall or fat/thin version. Red on blue, pistol in right hand, flash light left hand. Meaning that the one you saw is about 6 foot tall, 180 lbs, etc wearing a red blouse and blue trousers etc. If you see a group, you might say four, fallowed by as many individual descriptions as you can note in the above mentioned manor. (What) running, taking up position. In addition, (where) reference i.e. east side of building or carnal i.e. south of unit, clock face i.e. two o’clock, degrees/mills, it also maybe necessary to give range etc. Here when, why, and how are for the politicians to decide (LOL) i.e. IMO not necessary to use or define here.

Attack commands; aka, Fire Commands, the British term is Quick battle orders (QBO). There are three parts with sub sections as fallows. Part one, Designation; (Who) example rifleman, Grenadier. Part two, Description; (What) describes target or action to be taken by unit member i.e. rush, fallowed by (Where) location again expressed as cardinal, clock face i.e. two o’clock or in degrees/mills fallowed by the range. Note with action to be taken, Example; rushes direction and range would be to the next desired location. Part three, Orders; (How) i.e. with automatic, semi and or with what type of ammo, HE, AP, tracers or fuse setting. Keep in mind that if Mark-19 rounds are striking a target, which other weapons could engage and take out, something is wrong. Mark-19 ammunition is heavy and should not be used when other weapons can do the same job. Continuing with Orders next comes (When) i.e. on my command or fire/loose at well, “Ignis ubi paratus/fire when ready” etc. Again, Sign language/hand signals can be used if foe is at close range. This is also necessary when working with foreign troops. Whenever passing word IMO due so loud clear and once, i.e. repeated at proper intervals only. In other words if you barely heard it chances are the next Marine did not hear it, or if the Marine beyond you is not observed or heard passing the word. Note see Defensive section rule # 7 Decide on signals, for more important information on this subject. Where’s the (Why)? (LOL) you are just to do or die, i.e. IMO there is no need to use or define why here.

Encounter engagement;

Not all battles are straightforward situations of attacker versus defender.  At times, units encounter each other in the advance. Unlike running into a rearguard, which is protecting a retreating unit, an encounter engagement differs in that neither side is fully aware of the scale of the forces they are facing. This is because the enemy has probably not yet presented the greater part of its forces. At the Battalion level, the advance would be conducted with a single Rifle Company in the vanguard. The remainder of the Battalion would follow either in column or arrowhead formation. The latter was more likely as the Battalion approached areas they were uncertain of, as the Rifle Companies could deploy much quicker. Such encounters were as much about maneuvers as they were firepower. The action would begin at the lowest level, likely two groups of scouts running into one another. From there, the vanguard would deploy, seeking to outflank the enemy. What differentiates an encounter engagement is that, rather than attempting to defend their line or fall back slightly, the enemy often well be doing the same thing i.e. outflank. Thus, the frontline well be fluid, as it has yet to be delineated. Such engagements can quickly develop into a general engagement as more units are fed in, with units searching for an open flank to exploit. Senior commanders could also be tempted by the possibility of ‘rolling up’ the enemy line before they can establish a defensive position. If one moved quickly, there was the chance of cutting off the enemy’s vanguard from its main force, but in so doing units were exposed to a similar fate. Equally, this opportunity could be lost if one opted for caution. The key to this decision rested on accurate intelligence. As well as the proximity and likelihood of reinforcements. 
Note; IMO on a Fire Team or Squad level it would always be best to be initially very aggressive with in a given area depending on terrain. That is to say, around the perimeter or within a single building with MOUT, or several hundred feet i.e. foot ball field size area in semi open terrain i.e. street side or brush country, however jungle terrain usually confines units to very small areas for maneuvering, and success depends more on your initial formation and immediate overwhelming firepower. 

2) Approach and pursue with care:

With wounded or apparently dead friendly what ever got him, sniper or booby trap, might get you. Snipers are usually limited to a narrow field of view and may not be able to readily differentiate between friendly and enemy forces. With booby-trap there maybe more than one. Body itself might be rigged. With foe all the above applies plus foe could be faking injury. Also, show caution when being hailed/called to locations. Don’t allow yourself to be led anywhere. With pursuits, do not closely pursue individuals or units, you never know when the foe will stop and ambush or body trap the path. Maybe just a few Dead Enders, unwilling or unable to retreat due to injury. You should pursue along parallel path. The key point is speed, over take and cut them off at the pass.

3) Attack or retreat in shifts:

This is covering each other during attacks or retreats i.e. during advancing or withdrawal rushes/movements and you should take special care in exposed places i.e. crossing avenues or around blind corners. Attacking or retreating in shifts can also be done vertically i.e. from different floors. Historically horses i.e. cavalry units have been used to lead charges and cover retreats. When bounding with individuals, units or vehicles, those providing cover fire should be halted, making accurate fire of a half mile to one mile ranges possible. It is always best if the one providing cover is concealed too i.e. unseen no movement, remaining motionless until the one being covered is ready to provide cover. Three methods: movement by successive bounds, this is leap froging to each others position. Take care to avoid bunching up in large groups. Movement by alternate bonds, this is leap froging pass one another’s positions. Note that, point man commonly moves to fast or far breaking formation (if you well). Three man filer buster method, the method starts with a three man unit in a (V) formation. It involved each Marine at some point becoming the so-called middleman (i.e. next to advance) and who advances between the other two Marines. This method provides a unique option, that being that a team could use it in a defensive stand, with the team leader remaining stationary i.e. becoming the center while the other two took turns rushing between the leader and there fellow maneuvering Marine as they rotated around the team leader, thus shifting locations and providing fire in what ever direction the leader directed. At night especially, this would give the foe, an impression the unit was larger than just three. In general, the filer buster method also provided for maximum flexibility for units to change directions i.e. move and fight in any direction needed.

In principle the responsibilities of all Marines providing cover and with the filibuster method the two others, are to assist the maneuvering middle man by placing well aimed shots on foe (i.e. shooting the foe) this distracts and keeps foe from being able to keep tabs on the maneuvering middleman and causes foe’s fire to be ineffective and or to seize. In addition, they keep tabs on foe, feed information to the middleman about foe. With filer buster method, the Marine located at the stern should initiate cover fire, ideally only a three round burst. This is due to the fact that middleman i.e. rusher well be quickly crossing the stream of cover fire.
With all methods of bounding Marines providing cover may chose to sound off “Move, or some other verbal” to indicate they are prepared to provide cover. This maybe the case in particular before the shooting starts. However ideally before shooting starts especially if foe is unaware of your units approach, hand signals, i.e. maybe a twisting of the rifle from horizontal to the upright should be used. IMO normally under fire most likely it well be the volume, location i.e. direction and perhaps slightly different sound of the weapon providing the cover fire that clues you in to the times to move i.e. rush. If your not shooting you should be, doing a tactical reload (i.e. loading even through your not completely out, IMO switch to full magazine and top off old magazine after placing it back in pouch) this is coupled with a 360 check, and or communicating with others or moving. You choose the method of bounding based on the amount of cover and concealment available in the area and the volume of fire you are under. If your group is under heavy fire, with lots of cover in area, there is less need for always alternating who moves next. You can low crawl sometimes under cover fire right up to foe’s position. In snow you maybe able to crouch on to skies and slide or be pulled into positions.

(Even in very open terrain the well-trained rifleman will be able to locate and use all kinds of limited cover, such as slight depressions or rises. However, in very open areas, an advance will usually necessitate overwhelming fire superiority with consequent longer bounds between firing positions).

The methods of fire and movement described above have a drawback in the application. Depending upon the distance to be covered, the need to swap fire positions to maintain cover also slows the advance. Making rushes as long as possible can help, however the longer the assault takes, and with any lessening of cover fire, the greater the chance for the foe to target the attackers. An alternative is marching fire i.e. the Squad advancing as a single entity. All arms are brought to bear on the enemy during the advance. The key to success is in overwhelming supporting fire delivered from artillery, mortars, machine guns and ideally accompanying tanks. There is no subtlety involved whatsoever. The advantage is speed, using such shock action, a line of riflemen can advance quickly to the enemy line and move into the close combat i.e. Assault phase and when pressed resolutely it can be astoundingly successful.  

Note refer to STEP # 2 under Leadership guidelines, Light machine gun group. For related information.  


Unit estimated capabilities (i.e. speed and ranges obtainable). Comparative information to consider, (Olympic athletes 60 meter run 7 seconds. 100 meters 9.85 seconds. 200 meters 19.85 seconds. Also, various altitudes would affect performance). As a rule of thumb for Marines conducting alternate bounding cycles, with a column lateral movement, Marines humping 25- 50 lbs of combat kit, executing zigzags and momentary stops and or drops. 150’/50 m rushes in 20 seconds would be well within their capabilities. To continue, with a six man fire team, 50’ intervals, divided into two sections of three moving in pairs (i.e. last Marine from each section) cycle starts with rushers advancing 50’ past respective point man for a total rush of 150’/50m. Thus 40 seconds between individual rushes, 1 minute between cycles for each section. Thus 60 cycles per hour for a max of one hour. Thus 60 x 150’ = 9000’ exactly or about one and three quarters of a mile (9240’) an hour on average. Note if individuals rushed the entire length of the six-man fire team they would have to do 300’ rushes, taking up to a minute with 6-minute cycles, 10 per hour 10 x 300’ equals 3000’ per hour. Note IMO with the last method the individual would be in motion far to long for secure movement however, the one advantage is more cover fire is at the ready. Therefore, if a unit was under heavy fire and the goal was to place one Marine in a specific location this would be the preferred method.   

With sections of three Marines each rushing as groups, each section member rushes 300’/100m or yards, in 30 seconds. 30 seconds between section rushes one minute cycles. Thus 60 cycles per hour for a maximum of one hour.  Thus 60 x 300’ = 18000’ (3.4 miles exact) or 3 and a half miles 18480 feet.  
More comparative information with unit runs female Olympic runners are doing 5kms i.e. 3miles in 15 minutes. Thus, IMO combat troops humping 25 lbs of kit 18 minutes would be well within their capabilities.
Note work figures for successive bounds of pairs or sections.    
Indian running units, vehicles or ships.
Firefighters said to be capable of climbing an average of 25 fights of stairs an hour. IMO the weight of equipment between firefighters and Marines would be about the same.

On “war cries”, one should not sound off until combatants have joined in combat. Sounding off too early, can be considered a sign of arrogance or cowardice. The effect is grater when foe is hearing cry, at the same time they are meeting weapons.
Note on this GO, GO, GO, GO, we here the Mainers and troops barking out as they exit or enter things. This not only lets all foes in the area know precisely when your exiting or interring, it IMO distracts and hinders the hearing abilities of those in your unit. IMO its just hoop and hype Bull Shit cheerleading. I wound just prefer to here a single “Due it” i.e. the old D.I. command that is instilled in all Marines during boot camp (this being the execution command fallowing any detailed instructions). It should carry over to the FMF and there be reinforced.   

Maneuvers and Formations;

At this point I would like to suggest everyone recall the General phases of an attack; one the approach, two contact, three the assault and four consolidation.

Maneuvers: Single envelopment – advantages, element of surprise is usually possible. Choose the ground you fight on. Causes enemy to fight in two directions. Generally effects foe’s moral vs. a frontal attack. Should not be used at night. Maneuver element two thirds of unit’s total strength. Uses fire and maneuver until fire and movement becomes necessary. Note; fire and maneuver involves units or groups moving. Fire and movement is individual Marines or vehicles  moving. Base element one third of unit’s total strength. Assist maneuver element in the same manor as mentioned under responsibilities of Marines providing cover fire in successive, alternate or filer buster methods.
Double envelopment – one form of a double envelopment is a pincer, note; over all the units movements could be simultaneous or alternating i.e. one element for holding/placing fire on target or used as a decoy.

Formations:

Column – Purpose; for traveling long distances. Make time. Keep injuries down. Difficult for foe to count your unit quickly. Put large unit through small narrow passages. Down hill movement, deep snow may also dictate the use of a line formation when it would not be considered suitable on level ground. Pros; strong flanks, good control and communication. Cons; weak point and stern. Slow in reacting laterally (i.e. to the bow or stern).

During WWII, a typical formation was lead by the Squad Leader. Behind him came the Gun Group, ready to provide quick supporting fire. The riflemen followed the gun team, with the Assistant Leader bringing up the rear in the German and American model to close up the formation. British and Russian variations placed him with the Gun Group. This column formation was favored during the advance to the combat zone. It was not a fighting formation, merely a traveling one. In those areas where it was uncertain precisely at what point the Squad could expect to encounter resistance, one or two men would go forward as scouts. The US Squad routinely placed two men on point for a column in front of the Leader. Prior to combat, or after coming under unexpected fire, the Squad would deploy. The riflemen would form a skirmish line, either centered around the light machine gun, or flanking it on one or the other side, depending upon the favored doctrine. To reduce vulnerability to enemy fire, this skirmish line would spread out, leaving some 3 to 5 meters between each man. In reality, movement was more dictated by terrain, conditions and enemy action. Men learned to break up the intervals between units or individuals, as well as to avoid bunching up. IMO thus keeping the foe from being able to guess location of another man based on knowing location of one in the formation i.e. rule # 5 COE. This (bunching up i.e. cluster fuck) was a cardinal sin, as to submit to the temptation of sticking close to, a friend in front meant a far greater chance of both falling victim to a single shell or machine gun burst. Men would always seek to advance under cover of trees, hedges, walls, defiles, streams, natural depressions, anything that would place a barrier between them and the enemy's line of sight. However, the ground was not always kind, and at some point would come a tract of land with no discernable cover. Only the most charitable or incompetent of enemies would fail to cover that tract with fire. Negotiating passage over ground under fire called for speed and suppression, but how was the infantryman to quell the barrage of distant artillery? Unless his own guns were mounting counter battery fire, the only solution was to wait for a pause and then rush forward.
Echelon – Purpose; protect flanks. Probing foe lines. Pros; difficult for foe to tell your direction of travel. Difficult for foe to out flank. Cons; slow moving. Difficult to control. Odd fields of fire.
Wedge- Purpose; foe presents expected, location unknown. When in dense terrain or during bad weather, and at night. Pros; maximum separation with in minimum area. All around good fire. Good control and communication. Quick reacting. Cons; complacency and working closely with other units. A pincer is commonly used to counters a wedge.

With a three Squad Platoon, there were three offensive formations that could be used. Known by many names, but perhaps the most descriptive would be arrowhead, V shape, and line. 

Arrowhead or narrow wedge (a reverse V shaped see fig below with command unit in center) formation, with scout unit up front other squads trailing in echelons. Formation had the advantage that it kept the bulk of the Platoon from direct contact with the enemy during the initial stage. On encountering resistance, the lead Squad would shift to a fire role, pinning the enemy.
Arrowhead shaped like inverted (V) with a stick out the top. Machine Gun group/team on flank enemy expected or known to be on. It is a maneuver unit formation. Used when enemy location known. Fire team on opposite side as flanking unit.
Spearhead machine gun group/team is centered up front. Purpose as line breaker. Pros; good for machine gun team vs. fire team.
True V formation; It mimicked the arrowhead but inverted the deployment of the Squads. Now, the advance was carried by two Squads moving in parallel i.e. two squads up front. The third Squad was held back in support, while Platoon Headquarters again occupied the centre. This reversal placed the greater part of the Platoon in direct line with the enemy, it also increased the weight of fire the Commander could bring to bear against the foe. The leading Squads would cover each other using fire and movement. The third Squad was held back in reserve, or used to provide additional over watching fire. The drawback was that the only way to achieve numerical superiority in the assault phase was to throw in the third Squad, or better still use it to cover the final assault of the other two. It was a slow and deliberate advance, unsuited to a fast moving assault. It was of great benefit against a true defense in depth, where there were several lines to be breached. There was also a problem though, in that as the bulk of the company was in the leading echelon, once battle was joined it had a tendency to become engaged in the firefight i.e. if two squads, platoons or companies became pinned down by effective enemy fire, they were robbed of their ability to maneuver. There was a school of thought which reckoned units should be presented more like an iceberg, in that the majority of its strength was kept uncommitted, until the true dispositions of the defender had been revealed. A single fire team/squad/platoon/company/battalion advance kept the greater part of the over all unit under control this helped to counter the defense in depth. The Commander could now decide how to develop the attack with a far more capable reserve. The drawback was the obvious reduction in the frontage of the unit involved. IMO making it possible that two units on patrol may discover one another only after the units where near or on each other’s flanks. Leading with just a single unit i.e. fire team, squad, platoon, company, or battalion, meant now instead of the unit’s effort being dissipated across a two unit frontage, the Commander could utilize all of his available firepower to support the efforts of his single main effort unit. As a result, they had far greater potential to win the firefight, and quickly close with the enemy. The second unit would follow hard on the heels of the first, ready to exploit the breakthrough and move through the lead unit to continue the advance. The third unit would then follow in their wake to repeat the process. If the second unit had to pitch in to help the first secure the breached point, the third would still be available for the exploitation phase. By choosing to concentrate on breaching a single point, the key to success shifted to how quickly they could exploit the breach i.e. pour troops through the breach to compromise the foe’s line across a far greater length than they had actually engaged it on.
Skirmishes- Purpose; for attack, mob up, or search. Pros; natural for fire and maneuver or movement. Max fire to front/bow and stern. Cons; bad control, weak flanks.
Line; each squad formed itself into a skirmish line; the instruction that the line should only be formed if the squad, platoon etc was caught by surprise seems somewhat vague. 

Phalanxes – defined as closed ranks of heavily armed infantry. 

Note: Equipment on port side of troops, and hence units on the port side, are traditionally considered weaker. Troops traditionally hampered by shields etc. Port side unit’s also defensive side, starboard side, offensive side. Your offensive units advanced obliquely on foes port units. Traditional term Seventh formation used when natural obstacle such as a lake, river, ocean, mountain, was available to cover one flank.

Note refer to Step # 2 in planning especially starting with notes fallowing the heading Squad leaders.

4) Zigzag:

On rushes, from the prone, lead leg brought forward, arms are kept in close to the body, with one movement spring up. Zig zaging, is darting to port and starboard when rushing. Mix it up, avoid patterns. Start your first zig or zag on your fifth stride then from that point decrease to every third. This is all based on time it takes unsuspecting foe to spot you, aim and squeeze off well aimed shot, 3-5 seconds. Foe and you are at your slowest at beginning and end of rushes or dashes. Overall, lateral or diagonal movement is always best, even while just walking on patrol.

5) Roll when you drop:

To keep observer from being able to estimate your location from point you were last seen. Example: when you approach wooden fences or walls foe might be observing from high point or with tall grass when you drop down into it. From time to time you should drop down a little to one side of your cover, just after or just before it and roll or crawl to desired point. Right after cover helps you maintain speed, just before surprises foe. From stationary point drop strait down and kick legs out behind you. Support yourself with butt of rifle. Do not drop or fall forward. Split multiple objects of cover when not under fire.

6) Lay limbs in:

To minimize profile and keep elbows and toes from catching grazing rounds. Lay with legs crossed at ankles, this also makes for quicker rolling. You should remain motionless prior to preparing to move to another point. Playing possum i.e. faking death after ground near your position peppered. In general stay low, standing troops more likely to be thought of as a threat i.e. shot first, lying in the prone you look more like KIA, this when enemy runs upon your position. Also laying amongst Gear on the deck will look like another Marine i.e. bed roll and other items sticking out of pack look like limbs. 
You will have more difficulty using weapons in the prone with larger magazines. Break up the regular lines of your skies by throwing snow over them.


7) Don’t look, shoot, run or expose:

You don’t look, shoot or run from same side of cover and concealment you approach. Look from one side shoot from another. Right handed shooters tend to shoot from right side. You should alternate hand you carry weapon in and side you intend to shoot from. Shoot from shoulder that best allows you to stay behind cover. You don’t expose weapons or body parts from windows, doorways, corners, over hangs or objects of cover and concealment. This tells foe what you’re aiming at, how many you are and where you is. Best to observe or fire under, around or even though cover. Over, as a last resort. Best to shoot low through walls, rather than high. With windows and doors it is best to stay low as possible when shooting threw. Avoid passing in front of them. Watch out for ground level basement types. With corners, view around them at ground level and or at a distance. Never stand to fire around corners. This exposes entire body to fire and at expected height. With two Marines, use over and under i.e. one high one low for providing cover and or just observing. High Marine should scan i.e. observe low, low Marine scans high. This can fool Foes on rooftops that will tend to think standing/high Marine should be covering them. In general (not if you are personally under fire) when peaking over or around cover or concealment i.e. if you must expose body/head do so in a slow deliberate manner. Avoid abrupt movements. Always make note of possible cover and concealment in your immediate area. Analysis according to escape plan, protection and observation properties. Select next (if not next two) positions, before leaving old one. Move from one well concealed position to the next using all cover and concealment available between them.

8) Use support, lean in:

Always use support lean on walls, trees, rocks, vehicles, and equipment, packs, bub’s shoulder or back. Do not place barrel or muzzle directly on support, this slows recovery and rapid shifting of aiming point. The ground is your number one means of support. In the prone visibility will be limited by vegetation and irregularities in ground and dust kicked up by muzzle blast. Lay behind piles of rubble not on them. Things may give way as you are firing. With prone in winter skies and ski poles can be placed out in front of you and laid back at an angle over one shoulder. Or placed parallel with and on knoll supporting elbows or weapons. With bipods, a strip of cloth can be tied to base of each leg, forming triangle across bottom to prevent sinking. Also legs placed on snow shoes. Setting is best for sloping surfaces i.e. river banks, roof tops and hill sides. Knelling, with high knell, initially the toe of forward foot is pointed in the direction of the target. Movement can be steadied by adjusting forward toe inward. Elbows of forward arm kept just inside forward knee. Standing, under winter conditions ski poles can be held together i.e. crossed at handles and placed out in front. Two rifles especially with bayonets fixed can be held together i.e. crossed for aircraft or other high angle shots. If no support available lean in direction of target with 2/3 weight on forward foot.
Steady Position; elements are as follows. Support; if it is not available, then the bones, not the muscles, in the shooter’s upper body must support the rifle. Using the bones allows one to relax and settle into position. Using muscles as support causes movement as muscles fatigue. Prone position to assume correctly, stand facing the target with the left hand well forward along the hand guard and the right hand grasping the stock at the heel of the butt. Feet spread comfortably apart, drop to your knees, grounding the toe of the rifle butt well forward on a line between the right knee and the target. Roll down on your left side, placing the left elbow well forward on the same line. Use your right hand to force the butt of the rifle into the pocket of the firing shoulder. This reduces the effect of recoil. Grip the small of the stock or pistol grip with the right hand, and lower your right i.e. firing elbow to the ground so that your shoulders remain level, this balance is very important. Avoid canting the rifle to one side as well. Non-firing Elbow; is positioned under the rifle for stability. The firing hand grasps the pistol grip so it fits the V or web formed by the thumb and forefinger. A slight rearward pressure is now exerted by the fingers gripping the small of stock or pistol grip to ensure that the butt of the stock remains in the pocket of the shoulder. The grip of the non-firing hand is light.
Natural Point of Aim. (NPA) when first assuming a position, point rifle in the general direction of the target. Then adjust body so rifle and sights aligned naturally on the target, to bring the rifle and sights exactly in line with the desired point of aiming. When correct body-rifle-target alignment is achieved, the front sight post well remain on target, without using muscular effort i.e. when your are relaxed.
When taking a breath, the crosshairs should move straight down through the centre of the target along 12 and 6 o'clock. If the crosshairs move down at an angle, your elbow is not properly supporting the barrel.
As the rifle fires, muscles tend to flex i.e. tense, causing front sight movement away from the target toward the natural point of aim. Adjusting this point to the desired point of aim eliminates this movement. When the Marine expects multiple target exposures or is assigned a sector i.e. field of fire, as with moving targets at various ranges or elevations, the Marine adjusts his NPA to the center of the expected target exposure area (i.e. center of his field of fire). Farther more the non-firing elbow should remain free from support.

Analyzing shot group; the shooter may not notice errors during firing, but errors become apparent when analyzing a group. If group tends to be low and right; left hand is not positioned properly. Right elbow maybe slipping. With right-handed shooter, you may be using improper trigger control. If group strung up and down; you are breathing while firing.

Compact group out of the target; incorrect zero. Bad natural point of aim. Scope shadow. Group center of target at bottom; scope shadow. Horizontal group across the target; scope shadow, or bad natural point of aim.
Group scattered about the target; incorrect eye relief or sight picture i.e. ensure your constant stock weld. Check if weapon is canted. You maybe concentrating on the target and not the front sight post. Good group but with several erratic shots; Flinching or stock weld changed.

Using short burst and bipod equipped a 5.56 or 7.62 at 300 m can achieve 80 % accuracy, at 400 m 75% to 70% respectfully, 600m 60% to 50%. With the 5.56 mm, it is capable of 6-inch groups at 100 yards i.e. 300 feet and peppers area at 1km. The 7.62 mm is capable of 6-inch groups at 1320 feet. Shooting single shot, the 7.62 mm is capable of accurate fire within one-foot circle at 880 yards or 2640 feet and peppers area at 2km. Generally a Bolt action has accuracy of 1 inch at 300 feet. AS -50 cal. semi 1 ½ inches at 100 yards. Long range goal 30 inch circle at 2000 yards.

Note: with next rule, again as with rules four and five in PCP section, the detail notes became so similar I decided to combine rules. Thus again I did not renumber rules due to personal difficulty in retaining any new numerical order of the basic rules.  

9/10) Good sight alignment, and good sight picture:

Stock Weld; Assume the same cheek-to-stock weld each time. Your neck should be relaxed. Proper eye relief is obtained with a natural line of sight through the center of the rear sight aperture to the front sight post and on though to the target. A small change in eye relief normally occurs after each firing or when shooter assumes a different firing position. Thus, begin adjustments each time by touching the charging handle with the tip of your nose. You should be mindful of exactly how the nose touches and this should be consistent.  
Eye focus; Dominate eye wide open opposite eye closed 90 % this is to maintain depth perception. Ensure eye is in line with the rear sight aperture. Focus on target then focus back on front sight post. The firer places the tip of the front sight post on the aiming point, but the eye must be focused on the tip of the front sight post. This causes the target to appear blurry, while the front sight post is seen clearly. The reason for focusing on the front sight post is that only a minor aiming error should occur since the error reflects only as much as the Marine fails to determine the target center. A greater aiming error can result if the front sight post is blurry due to focusing on the target.
Lighting affects the way the sniper sees the target through a scope. This effect can be compared to the refraction (bending) of light through a medium, such as a fish bowl or prism. The same effect, although not as drastic, can be observed on a day with high humidity and with sunlight from high angles i.e. morning and evening hours especially during winter and summer solstices and or when located at latitudes far from suns zenith. Lighting affects range determination capabilities too. Note see Defense, rule # 5, objects looking farther away or closer etc.
Sight Alignment; It involves placing the tip of the front sight post in the center of the rear sight aperture. Any alignment error between the front and rear sights repeats itself for every 1/2 meter the bullet travels. For example, at the 25-meter line, any error in alignment is multiplied 50 times. If the bullet is misaligned by 1/10 inch, at 300 meters it causes a miss of 5 feet. With scopes the shadow crescent shows on opposite side of round impact.

Correct Sight Alignment

Sight Picture; Is the placement of the sight alignment on target. A technique to obtain a good sight picture is the side aiming technique. It involves positioning the front sight post to the side of the target in line with the vertical center of mass, keeping the sights aligned. The front sight post is moved horizontally until the target is directly centered on the front sight post. Placement of the aiming point varies, depending on the engagement range. For example, at 300 meters the aiming point is the center of mass.

11) Factor in all weapons, weather, terrain and target data:


Bore sighting:
One way to zero the rifle is to bore sight it. First separate upper and lower receivers and remove the bolt, place upper receiver on a stack of sandbags. Look down the barrel through the breech; adjust the receiver until you see the centre of the target at the centre of the bore. IMO ideally, you might adjust the targets range until the diameter of the enter most ring matches the bores diameter, you might even drawl one using a coin, that works for a given range. Then look through the telescopic sight and see where the cross-hairs fall, adjusting windage and elevation until they coincide with the view down the rifle's barrel. Now all that remains to be done is to adjust the elevation by the standard amount for the range you're covering i.e. 3 ½ minutes for 200 meters, and so on.

Mechanically Zeroing the M16A1.
Adjust the front sight post (1) up or down until the base of the post is flush with the front sight post housing (2). Then adjust the front sight post 11 clicks in the direction marked UP (clockwise which raises the strike of the bullet) thus moving the post down into the well. Any changes in elevation required during the zeroing will be made using the front sight post only. Once the rear sight is zeroed, the front sight post should not be moved. With the Rear sight windage drum; use the long-range aperture marked "L" (it is also the smaller aperture i.e hole) Figure 2-3. Adjust windage drum (3) all the way left (counter clockwise) until it stops. Then turn the windage drum back right (clockwise) 17 clicks so the rear sight is approximately centered. Once zeroed flipping the aperture back to the unmarked aperture will zero the weapon for 250 meters. Flipping it back to the (L) aperture once again, automatically zeros for 375 meters. Long range sights are used with the M-16A1 anytime over 300 yards. With A/2 375-400 yards.
The goal is to place three rounds within a 4 cm. circle.


Figure 2-2 M16A1 rifle mechanical zero

Figure 2-3 M16A1 rifle battle sight zero

Tables 2-3 and 2-4 show how one click of elevation or windage will move the strike of the round at 25-meter zero to 500 meters in exact figures.


Table 2-3 Point of impact for M16A1 with standard sights

Note; miss print on 25 meter elevation it should read 3/8th inch not 2 3/16 inch.


Table 2-4 Point of impact for M16A1 with LLLSS

Rounded off figures; M16A1 elevation, 25m ¼ inch, 100m 1 1/8 inch, 200m 2 ¼ inch, 300m 3 ¼ inch, 400m 4 3/8 inch, 500m 5 ½ inch. Windage, figures are the same. With the Low Light Level Sight System or (LLLSS) elevation, 25m 3/8th of an inch, 100m 1 ¾ inch, 200 m 2 ¾ inches, 300m 5 ¼ inch, 400 m 7 inches, 500m 8 ¾ inch. Windage, 25m ¼ inch, 100m 1 1/8th inch, 200m 2 1/4th inch, 300m 3 1/4th inch, 400m 4 3/8 inch, 500m 5 ½ inch.  


Mechanically Zeroing the M16A2/A3. (Figure 2-5)
Adjust the front sight post (1) until base is flush with the front sight post housing (2). To raise your next shot group, rotate the front sight post UP (clockwise). One click will move the strike of the round one square (or 3/8th inch) on the target. Position the aperture (5) so the unmarked aperture is up and the 0-200 meter aperture is down. The marked 0-2 (large) aperture is for short ranges 0-200 meters (or for night). This 0-2 aperture is used only when the rear sight is all the way down. The unmarked (small) aperture is used in conjunction with the elevation knob for most (normal) firing ranges 300 to 800 meters.
The rear sight elevation knob has range indicators from 300 to 800 meters. Rotate the windage knob (6) to align the index mark on the 0-200 meter aperture with the long center index line on the rear sight assembly. Adjust the elevation knob (3) counterclockwise, as viewed from above, until the rear sight assembly (4) rests flush with the carrying handle and the 8/3 marking is aligned with the index line on the left side of the carrying handle. Then adjust the elevation knob one click clockwise. Once flush, to place your 300-meter zero on the rifle, you must rotate the elevation knob one click counterclockwise (clockwise). The 8/3 (300-meter) mark on the elevation knob should now be aligned with the index mark on the left side of the sight. (i.e. after setting the front and rear sights to mechanical zero, the elevation knob is rotated up (clockwise) one click past the 8/3 (300-meter) mark. The elevation knob will remain in this position until the battle sight zeroing has been completed).


Figure 2-5 M16A2/A3 rifle mechanical zero
2/07/11 Note stopped transfer here for now do to the pictures adding to much for me to handle right now see more updated info below.
Rear sight; to adjust elevation; turn the elevation knob until the desire range is indexed at the index mark on the left side on the sight. The rear elevation knob adjusts the point of aim from 300 to 800 meters on the M16A2, and 300 to 600 meters on the M16A4 and M4.
Windage knob each click will move the strike of the round from 1/8 inch (.3 centimeters) at 25 meters to 4 inches (10 centimeters) at 800 meters. To move the shot to the left, turn counterclockwise. To move the shot to the right, turn clockwise. Three clicks will move the strike of the round one square on the target. A windage scale is on the rear of the sight and the windage knob pointer is on the windage knob.


Table 7-7 M16A2/3 and front sight post of the M16A4


Table 7-8 M4/M4A1 and windage of an M16A4


Table 2-6 Point of impact for M16A4 MWS, M4/M4A1/M4MWS

NOTE: The squares are numbered around the edges of the target to equal the number of clicks required to move the shot group to the circle.

.
25-meter zero target

Sight settings; your rifle sights should be kept set to a combat zero of 300 meters. When zeroed to 300 meters, all other ranges on the elevation knob are also zeroed. If you are told to engage a target at a longer range; for example, 500 meters: There are clicks between the range numbers as you turn the elevation knob. Use these clicks if you need more elevation past a certain range. When the engagement is over, return the sight to the 300-meter setting.

Mechanically Zeroing the M16A4. Front sight post is flush with the front sight post housing. Adjust the elevation knob (1) counterclockwise, when viewed from above, until the rear sight assembly (2) rests flush with the detachable carrying handle and the 6/3 marking is aligned with the index line (3) on the left side of the detachable carrying handle. To finish the procedure, adjust the elevation knob two clicks clockwise so the index line on the left side of the detachable carrying handle is aligned with the "Z" on the elevation knob. Position the apertures so the unmarked aperture is up and the 0-200 meter aperture is down. Rotate the windage knob to align the index mark on the 0-200 meter aperture with the long center index line on the rear sight assembly.

Mechanically Zeroing the M4/M4A1 and M4 MWS. Same as for M16A4 with the 6/3 mark aligned etc.
NOTE: The elevation knob remains flush. The "Z" marking on the elevation knob used in the detachable carrying handle of the M4-series weapon should be ignored. The "Z" marking is only used when the M16A4 is being zeroed.

Note see Appendix COE rule # 11 for more information.

02/07/11 more corrected transferred texts i.e. from rule # 12 to 

12) Aiming point lower on down hill slope or at night:

This is to compensate to counter perceptions. When shooting down hill you tend to shoot high and at night due to fact that base of target is obscured in darkness. On up hill sloop you shoot low. The previous rules of thumb hold true with general combat shooting, however for sniper firing consider the fallowing. Angles; Firing uphill or downhill (i.e. at a slanted range) causes the point of impact to be higher (relative to a horizontal trajectory) than it normally would be for a level shot at the same range. How high depends on the angle and range. This is do to the fact gravity acts on a bullet only during the horizontal component of its flight (the distance from the shooter to the target measured as if they were both at the same level). Since the horizontal component will always be less than the slanted range, gravity will not pull the bullet down as far as it would if the range were level. However the wind still affects the shot over the entire slant range. The correct method for shooting uphill or downhill is to adjust elevation based on the horizontal range, and correct for wind deflection based on the slanted range, i.e. the shooter should aim at the target as if it were 25 yards away and correct for wind as if it were 400 yards away.
Additional info to consider, hold lower than normal when shooting steeply up or down hill at long range. (At gentle angles you can ignore the problem altogether over the maximum point blank ranges of hunting rifle cartridges.)
You can infer from this that the farther from the level position a rifle is held, the less the bullet's drop will be over any given line of sight distance, whether it is fired up or down. Since your sights are set to compensate for bullet drop, and there is less bullet drop when shooting at an up or down angle, you must hold lower than normal to maintain the desired point of impact. For example, shooting up or down at a 40 degree angle and the LOS range is 400 yards, the horizontal range is only 335 yards. 335 yards is the distance you must hold. In other words, it is the horizontal or true ballistic range and not the LOS or angular range that matters. However keep in mind that perception wise, when shooting up hill you well tend to shoot low.
In general aiming point at height of mans heart for ambushes. Note; see appendix COE rule # 11 (External ballistics, esp. gravity).

13) Sweep against moving targets:

This is making target cross your stream of fire. Note with stationary target make note of possible cover target may seek before opening fire. Automatic weapons pull up and to the right. Lead for targets running to your right is tricky. It may be generally safer for you to make longer dashes to foe’s right.


With aircraft; if the battlefield is quit Jets can be hard 20-30 seconds away. In urban terrain it is difficult to tell direction however. Lead jets by 600’ helicopters by 150’, using the known aircraft’s length as a guide. Best chance of success is a head-on position, aiming above the aircraft. However if the aircraft is diving on your position. Do not fire at them, you well only give away your position. Wait till it has pulled up. One option is the Exact Rendezvous method, selecting a reference point i.e. concentrate fire on hilltop. Massing fire along flight path junctions. For ambushes weapons i.e. guns and RPGs should be located in tunnels, as an anti smoke tactic. With aircraft farther away, at ranges near 800 meters, try using self destruct mechanism. Another tactic used against aircraft include, mining possible landing zones. Shadows cased by low fling a/c can be more visible then a/c.

Helo tactics


Try and overrun a LZ before the air assault forces had an opportunity to get organized and oriented. They also learned to “hug” soviet forces so that helicopter gunships could not fire at them.

Vary the take-off and landing directions from the helipads.
Sometimes fly in threes.
700-800 meters away and then fire, trying to catch the helicopter with the explosion of the round's self-destruction at 920 meters distance.                         

Soviet helo pilots took to flying NOE do to fact FIM -92 could not track targets below i.e. looking down. FIM -92 speed Mach two. Range 6 km. i.e. five miles.
Soviet fixed wing pilots not only gaining altitude quickly after take off but make very steep banking turns.





MOVING TARGETS

Certain situations, such as multiple targets at varying ranges and rapidly changing winds, do not allow for proper elevation and windage adjustments.
Leading; is establishing an aiming point ahead of the target's movement and maintaining it as the weapon is fired. With a scope it is the distance the cross hairs are placed in front of the target's movement. AKA Hold off, shifting the point of aim to achieve a desired point of impact. This requires the weapon and body position to be moved while following the target. A common error of the sniper is a tendency to watch his target instead of his aiming point. He must force himself to watch his lead point or chosen point on the mil scale, it becomes the sniper's point of concentration just as the cross hairs are for stationary targets. There are four factors in determining leads: Speed, as a target moves faster, it will move a greater distance during the bullet's flight. Therefore, lead increases as speed increases. Angle of movement, a target moving perpendicular to the bullet's flight path moves a greater lateral distance than a target moving at an angle away from or toward the bullet's path. Therefore, a target moving at a 45-degree angle covers ½ the distance as a target moving at a 90-degree angle. Range to the target, the farther away a target is, the longer it takes for the bullet to reach it. Therefore, lead must be increased as range increases. Wind effects, when using lead, the sniper aims into the wind. If the wind is moving from the right to left, his point of aim is to the right. A wind blowing opposite the target's direction of movement requires more lead on target, than a wind blowing in the same direction as the target's movement. Also with wind blowing in same direction, if it has a much greater speed than target, lead would have to be reduced accordingly. Note; I do not have the math skills to confirm the fallowing examples, or formulas. The following formulas are used to determine moving target leads: TIME OF FLIGHT x TARGET SPEED = LEAD. Time of flight in seconds. Target speed in fps. Lead = distance in feet. Average speed of a man crawling 1 fps/0.8 mph, walking = 2 fps/1.3 mph, double time = 4 fps/2.5 mph, jogging = 6 fps/3.7 mph. To convert leads in feet to meters: LEAD IN FEET x 0.3048 = METERS. To convert leads in meters to mils: Lead in meters x 1,000 over range to target equals mil lead.

THREE METHODS OF LEAD;
Exact Rendezvous; Preferred method of engaging moving targets. The sniper must establish an aiming point i.e. stationary point, ahead of the target and pull the trigger when the target reaches it. This method works best on targets with less lateral movement. It allows the sniper's weapon and body position to remain motionless. Determining/holding exact (sight picture) using the horizontal stadia lines in the mil dots in the M3A.
Estimate Rendezvous; Used to engage an erratically moving target (fleeting) i.e. one that only presents itself briefly and then resumes cover. As the target moves, cross hairs are centered as much as possible with the target. This involves establishing and maintaining an aiming point in relationship to the target and maintaining that sight picture (moving with the target), while squeezing the trigger. When the target stops, reappears or inters the sights the sniper fires. This technique puts the firer in position for a second shot if the first one misses.

M3A scope, when using the scope, the sniper uses the horizontal mil dots. The mil scale can be mentally sectioned into 1/4-mil increments for leads. For example, a target at 500 meters that requires a 10-inch lead, he would place the target's center mass halfway between the cross hairs and the first mil dot (1/2 mil).

Tracking method with single lead?
Single lead method;
Note; I do not have the math skills to confirm the fallowing examples, or formulas.
On the method, the trailing edge of the front sight post is centered on target mass. Note see figure 7-29. This causes lead to automatically increase as range increases.


Figure 7-29 Single-lead rule again I can't figure out how to transfer pictures etc.

The rule provides for many speed-angle combinations that places the bullet within 2 inches of target center at 100 meters, the rule begins to break down for targets moving at slight and large angles. If applied on targets moving at a slight angle-for example, 5 degrees at 100 meters-the bullet strikes forward of target center, about 4 inches with standard sights and about 7 inches with LLLSS sights. In fact with targets moving at an angle less than 30 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat in front of target center. With targets moving at an angle of more than 30 degrees, the bullet strikes somewhat behind target center. In the worst case (i.e. 90-degrees, moving 8 mph IMO we are assuming 100 m range) the shot-group center is located 9.8 inches behind target center. If bullets were evenly distributed in a 12-inch group (recall 5.56mm equipped with bipod is capable of at least 6 inch group at 100m range) this (12 inch group) would result in hitting the target 40 % of the time.

The angle of target movement is the angle between the LOS and the target's direction of movement. Figure 7-31 reflects the differences in lateral speed for various angles of movement for a target traveling at 8 mph at a distance of 150 meters. At 90 degrees an 8-mph target moves 24 inches during the bullet's time of flight. If it is moving on a 15-degree angle, it moves 6 inches (the equivalent of 2 miles per hour). Note list figures in figure 7-31.


Figure 7-31 Target movement (distance) at various angles

More Example information; 8 miles per hour at a 90-degree angle and range of 300 meters, target covers 4 1/2 feet during time of fight. 10 mph is 14.6 feet per second. Common muzzle velocities 2640-3k plus fps. The front sight post covers about 1.6 or 1.5 inches at 15 meters and about 16/15 inches at 150 meters. Since the center of the front sight post is the actual aiming point, placing the trailing edge of the front sight post at target center provides a .8 or ¾ inch lead on a 15-meter target and an 8 or 7 ½ inch lead on a target at 150 meters. This rule provides a dead-center hit at 15-meters with target moving 7 mph at a 25-degree angle because the target travels .8 inches during time of fight. At 150-meters with target moving 7 miles per hour at a 25-degree angle moves 8 inches during time of fight.


A walking target at 250 meters is hit dead center when moving at 45 degrees. Hits can be obtained if target is moving on any angle between 15 and 75 degrees. When target is running, a center hit is obtained when the target is on an angle of 15 degrees; misses occur when target exceeds an angle of 30 degrees.

Note so after all that, IMO i.e. SWAG, rule of thumb, I say a 45 degree angle reduces lateral movement by one ½ to 1/3 and 60 or 75 degrees about 25% either which away, 15 or 30 degrees 75% either which away. Then there is this; Marines must be taught to fire at targets as though they are stationary until lateral movement exceeds (15 degrees). Marines should be taught to increase their lead if they miss, which increases their probability of hitting all targets. Furthermore, impact points and aiming points generally coincide at 100 yards or less, weather target stationary, walking or running. So IMO rough estimates are as fallows, at 300 yards range, aiming point is the leading edge for walker, one body width for runner. At 400 yards range, one body width for walker two or three for runner. With vehicles start at leading edge of body, add one body width for every 10 mph. Remember to consider angle of vehicles movement. Adjust lead as you would for wind values. 90 degree angle equals max speed and there for max lead, less than 45 degrees reduces both etc. This emphasizes the need for knowing bullet/muzzle velocities i.e. time of flight and how it relates to the range, angle, and speed of the target.

14) Trigger techniques:

Use just the tip of your finger, just breathing, just squeeze. B.R.A.S. breath, relax, aim and squeeze. The trigger finger (index finger on the firing hand) is placed on the trigger between the first joint and the tip of the finger (not the extreme end) and adjusted depending on hand size, grip, and so on. If the trigger is not properly squeezed, the rifle will be misaligned with the target at the moment of firing. The proper trigger squeeze should start with a slight pressure (aka first pressure) on the trigger during the initial aiming process. The firer applies more pressure after the front sight post is steady on the target and he has proper Breathe Control; learn to control breath at any part of the breathing cycle. There is a moment of natural respiratory pause when most of the air has been exhaled from the lungs and before inhaling. One should pause your breathing at this point and increase trigger squeeze. The shot must be fired before any discomfort is felt. Gurkha weapons instructor; Never snatch the trigger; always squeeze it gently, as if you’re stroking a cat/pussy. “Take the first pressure, pause your breathing, squeeze the trigger, and shoot to kill”. These techniques are used during zeroing (and when time is available to take a shot). During combat if winded you can exhale on to targets. In other words, aim in general direction of target, take deep breath, position sights over target and exhale, shooting as sights drop across target.  

15) Quick kill:

An instinctive method of shooting, aka Reflexive shooting; Used against fleeting targets at close range or during the night and in dense terrain. Also when wearing gas mask. Precision room clearing allows little or no margin for error. Too fast of a shot at a noncombatant, too slow of a shot at an enemy or inaccurate shots can all be disastrous.
Weapons Ready Positions; The two weapons ready positions are low ready and high ready.
Low Ready Position, Butt of weapon placed firmly in the pocket of shoulder with the barrel pointed down at a 45-degree angle. Considered to be the safest carrying position. It should be used by the clearing team while inside the room, except when actually entering and clearing. High Ready Position, Butt is held under the armpit, with the barrel pointed slightly up, keeping the front sight assembly under the line or plain of sight. To engage a target, the gunner pushes the weapon out as if to bayonet the target. When the weapon leaves the armpit, he slides it up into the firing shoulder. This technique is used when moving in a single file. General techniques, Butt of weapon in pocket of shoulder. The head is up and both eyes are open. Chin resting on top of stock, if to one side weapon will pull. Nose and eyes centered over stock and behind sights. Forward hand grasping front sight assembly near muzzle. Stance; Feet are shoulder-width or slightly wider apart. Toes are pointed to the front (direction of movement). The firing side foot is slightly staggered to the rear of the non-firing side foot. Knees are slightly bent and the upper body is leaned slightly forward. Shoulders are square to the LOS and pulled back, not rolled over or slouched. When engaging targets, the butt of the weapons remains in the pocket of his shoulder.
Principle: what ever you aim/point at, you should be able to hit. Effective range 50 meters. Shift your entire body to make adjustments. Best to under shoot than over shoot. Better chance to see corrections needed and better chance of ricochets hitting target. If it’s worth shooting, shoot it twice. Shot Placement; as each round is fired the weapon's recoil makes the front sight post move in a small natural arc. Do not fight this recoil. Let the weapon make the arc and immediately bring the front sight post back onto the target and take another shot. This two-shot combination is known as firing a controlled pair. Shots to the upper chest, then to the head. This shot placement increases the first round hit probability and allows for a second round incapacitating shot. This engagement technique is more reliable than attempting head-shots only and is easy to learn, having been taught previously to aim at center of mass.
Aiming M68 Close Combat Optic; The M68 Close Combat Optic (CCO) Note remember the M68 is not a telescope sight. Look through the CCO with both eyes open and focus on the target. An optical illusion places a red aiming dot in front of the firer. The dot is placed on the target then the target is engaged with fire. The aiming dot does not have to be centered in the optic. The CCO is used in the same manner at all ranges. Therefore, there is no distinction between well aimed or quick kill techniques.
AN/PAQ-4 and AN/PEQ-2 Aiming Lights; when using IR aiming lights in conjunction with (NVGs) use the instinctive fire technique to point the weapon at the target while activating the aiming light. This technique should place the aiming dot within the field of view of the NVGs and on or near the target. Adjust placement of the aiming dot onto the target and fire. Note that target discrimination is more difficult when using NVGs. IR illumination provided by flashlights with IR filters, or the illuminator that is integral with the PEQ-2, can aid in target identification and discrimination. IR illumination is also required inside buildings with little or no ambient light. Note IR illumination is also available with Artillery rounds.  

16) Scatter:

Whenever surrounded and out gunned it is best for group or unit to run in all directions. Less chance of all being killed or captured. Note see Step 3 Concept of operations, Part (D) patrol order, # 8 Rally points and  final rally point.


17) Five (S) and a (T):

Silence - POWs kept quite, but aloud too talk to you. Blindfolded POW less likely to cry out. Empty sand bag over heads of POWs. Positive Intel, good sources are owners of licensed premises, cabs, bartenders, pawn broker, gamblers, criminals, prostitutes and anyone who has contact with public especially at late hours. All can be employed as undercover agents. They report to contact agent /officers. Signs and suspicious activity, some one lavishly spending money, frequently wounded, always tired or sleepy. Insiders can solve past crimes, or for tell of future crimes too. Statements are looked upon as a source of leads to substantiate evidence, locate items, and other material facts. Note an enemy may feed information about the whereabouts of clues to those suspected of being informants. Then watch to see if authorities go looking for the clues. From the perspective of the enemy, it would be best if the clue were perishable. Note undercover agent hiding note in corps to be found by authorities during autopsy.  Interrogations: Interrogator should avoid duress and coercion. Interrogator can experimentally assume different attitudes i.e. good cop, bad cop i.e. very procedures to determine most effective technique. Evasive or deceptive manner, counter with leading questions, trap suspect with contradictions inconsistencies and improbable statements. Ask questions you already know answers to in order to check honesty. POW: If the arrest is based on the flimsiest grounds or suspicion, one should summit with loud protestations i.e. you most protest that you are unarmed, and ran out of fear. Once in custody relax, remain calm, familiarity breads security. Speak in court only if in position - through alibi for example, to regain freedom immediately. Other wise refuse to make statement of any kind. Always appear tired, no interrogator wants an unconscious prisoner. You should make eye contact with captor, talk about family no politics or religion. You should keep lies close to the truth. When all else fails tell the truth it wont be believed anyways. Violent resistance is to be recommended only when there is a chance of destroying the foe or when it is already a mater of life and death. Search - Watch the hands, hands kill. Have POW turn back to you immediately. Permit only one of a group to approach you at a time. Never walk between POWs or POW and Marine covering you. Search for weapons and documents. Ideally, i.e. ultimately check between toes, checks, and run comb though hair. Take uniforms for closer examination later, also with the dead. Marines should keep letter from home on them, with false misleading information i.e. parents just died, keep photo of kids you don’t have. Photos of proper, not sexy looking wife. Fleeing discard weapons in the shrubs. Striping the body (of enemy KIA or body of member of your unit that must be stored behind enemy lines) of its equipment, hide items or weapons in one place, body in another. S.A.T.; Save everything, Add to, and Take care of. Save everything; clothing, pieces of metal, paper, string. Hide items separately, if they’re discovered they’ll appear harmless. Add to; always improve, improvise, see how many ways a piece of equipment can be used. You must alternate frame of mind/reference i.e. a tree becomes shelter, weapons, food, fuel and clothing. Equipment will wear out but not your imagination. None perishable foods; boil sugar down to hard candy, if canned goods are punctured reseal with wax. Take care of; wear as little clothing as possible. Conserve wear and tear. Placing cardboard inside shoes to save wear on souls. Become gray man, blend in, and don’t ware crosses or loud clothing. Avoid first class seating, setting up front, and volunteering. Safeguard - Protect POWs against injury from others and their selves. Don’t allow items to be given to POWs. Defectors and stragglers are in more danger and more willing to cooperate. Treat POW well to nurture them for our uses. You most be able to provide food, water, clothing and shelter for POWs. Note: In general, POWs are not usually taken during attack, especially individuals or small groups. Attacker dose not won’t to spare troops needed to complete attack. Attackers own WIA need care. You might consider becoming useful to the attacker as medic etc. 50 % of POWs don’t survive. When POWs survive it’s in large numbers and or by negotiation. Best to try to hide or sneak away. Note; see Appendix Safeguard.
Segregate - POWs into groups i.e. by sex, rank and age. So no master plan can be made and known by all. POWs kept by irregulars are often treated as guest, made to wear traditional tribal cloathing, free to roam around area, can be difficult for recue personal to spot among locals.
Speed - Every thing done as quickly as possible. POW gotten out of area of capture ASAP. Less likely to be rescued or attempt escape. As a POW, you can fake sickness, injury, play hard of hearing. This is to slow things down, delay your transportation to stern areas. Information gathered, needs to be gotten to people that need it.
TAG - every POW with an ISaluteRWP report. One last use of the acronym. Note some changes of infuses include (S) dimensions and statements. The (U) who and unit etc POW was arrested with, might include Lawyer’s name. (LOL). (E) would note any documents on POW at the time of arrest. (R) reason for arrest. (W) witnesses. (P) Brig /prison being held in.

That's when you pull out your GPS flare gun. Even better: A satellite-guided flare that automatically travels toward the closest populated area. I'm sure the Pentagon has this already.

But what if you're injured, maybe stuck in a ravine without cell service? A lot of good that GPS device will do you.

Note; also see Planning, Step # 1 for all manor of information on people, personalities etc.

Over all tips

Joke: try to look unimportant, your foe maybe low on ammo. If you’re short of everything, except the enemy, you’re on the front. If your attack is going well, it’s an ambush. Incoming fire has the right a way.

Characteristics of (military operations in urban/ on urbanized terrain) MOUT;

German term; Rat-n-creeg meaning rat warfare. MOUT operations may be conducted to capitalize on strategic or tactical advantages which control of an area gives to you or denies to the enemy. Major urban areas represent the power and wealth of a country in the form of cultural, economic, industrial, political and transportation, centers. The control of these centers well yield decisive psychological advantages which determine the success or failure of the larger conflict. It is more difficult to recover from an erroneous decision in MOUT. Commanders may decide to by pass if speed is essential to their mission, enough forces are not available, and logistically the attack cannot be supported. Or if no substantial threat exists in the area. Civilian casualties and significant collateral damage to structures, require commanders to consider the political and psychological consequences of attacking. The fact that the defenders are resisting indicates that they will fight hard. The first thing you do when approaching a defended city is attempt to get it to surrender. For riflemen and team leaders, the fight is to seize a foothold in a given building and clear individual rooms. At the squad level, the fight is for a floor or a single small building. The platoon fight involves larger buildings and small complexes. Troop requirements are 3-5 times grater. Troop strength depends on surprise and Intelligence (Cmdrs. rely primarily on human lntel for information). Troops are needed to prevent reoccupation and refuge control. Civilians fleeing will block roads. Conduct operations around civil evacuation plans. Enemy will try to blend in with population, curfews can help. In Somalia Marines noted, guerillas almost always slept between 04-08 hours. A hostile population is a serious security problem. Possible cons, robbery, sabotage, protest, children shadowing patrols; they not only can get killed but can provide information to the foe. Crowd control; Show, Shout, Shove, Shoot. The unit commander has one or two snipers who can shoot key individuals (those with weapons, those who appear to be orchestrating the riot). Helicopters hovering low over a mob, especially in a dry and dusty environment, stirs up a wind storm of dust, sand, and noise. If you have an M-1 tank, back it up to the mob thus utilizing the hot exhausts. The necessity to provide life support and other essential services to civilians can siphon off resources and manpower. Such vast areas are difficult to defend or attack in their entirety. On the urban battlefield, advantages and disadvantages in the areas of mobility, cover, and observation tend to even out for attacker and defender. Initially, however, the defender has a significant tactical advantage over the attacker due to defender’s knowledge of the terrain. The defender can prepare the ground in advance, build and reinforce obstacles, and select firing positions and observation posts. He can reconnoiter and improve routes between positions to supply and shift forces quickly. (See Def. # 12) On the urban battlefield, the attacker must forfeit, at least in part, the advantages of cover and concealment in order to move and concentrate forces; every action by the attacker is made more difficult because he must feel his way through a complex of manmade and natural terrain features. Attacker’s routes of advance are limited and more clearly defined, enhancing the defender's target-surveillance capability. The attacker must use increased communications to coordinate his forces, which reduces his ability to achieve surprise. Although the built-up area may not occupy dominant terrain, it normally has dominant terrain adjacent to it on at least one side. Doctrinally, the attacker will attempt to bypass and isolate a built-up area by securing the adjacent dominant terrain before the built-up area itself is directly attacked. Isolated positions can be left to small holding units. Therefore, the defender always attempts to establish his defense well forward of an urban area and well integrate surrounding dominant terrain, natural and manmade obstacles, as well as the smaller rural towns and villages into the defense as strong points, in order to engage and defeat the attacker on the approaches and flanks and limit the advantages of being bypassed and isolated. The key defensive concept is to draw the attacking force into preplanned kill zones. Engagement ranges are greatly reduced by urban features. Targets will generally be exposed for brief periods, frequently at ranges of less than 100 meters. These limitations induce close, violent combat. The depression and elevation limits for weapons may create dead spaces. To deal with target masking by increased dead spaces caused by buildings or rubble, the artillery batteries are positioned away from tall buildings and other masks. The use of field artillery in the direct fire role may be required to suppress gunners in hardened positions. Greater reliance must be placed by the attacker on indirect and long-range weapon systems or air. The attacker is most vulnerable to enemy fires during the initial phase of securing a foothold within the built-up area. Initially, artillery is located on the outskirts facing the attacker’s approach. From these locations the artillery engages the attacker at maximum ranges. The defenses mutually supporting strong points are echeloned in depth. Operating from positions in depth complements electronic warfare support measures and observation activities and limits the attacker’s ground reconnaissance and infiltration capabilities. The defense reverts to the conduct of defense only when; attacking forces break through defenses on the approaches. At the appropriate time, artillery displaces rapidly along predetermined primary and alternate routes to alternate or supplementary positions. Attacks are often launched at night or under other conditions of limited visibility. Added to weather conditions that limit visibility are the urban factors of smoke and dust, and concealment offered by shaded areas of varying intensities. On the approaches to urban areas, visibility is frequently less than 3960’ i.e. ¾ of a mile. The attacker may use such conditions to extend his reconnaissance, re-supply positions, cross open areas, or secure objectives. To counter this, the defense may shift defensive positions and crew-served weapons to alternate positions just before dark. He occupies or patrols open areas between units which are covered by fire during daylight. Employing noisemaking devices, tangle foot and or tactical wire, outside of buildings. Mines, LPs and OPs, with NVDs, remote sensors, and radars on the most likely to be used nighttime avenues of approach. Heat, seismic and acoustic (glorified microphones) for early warning sensors, have been used since Vietnam, and acoustic sensors were used during WWI. Current heat sensors can let you look inside a building for the presence of people. Seismic (microphones that listen through the ground) and acoustic sensors can be fired like tear gas grenades into buildings to detect the presence of defenders, for monitoring until the enemy, or the sensors, are discovered and destroyed. Also airborne or ground lasers that paint/use windows as contact points. Another innovation is the remote control robots. And so the battle will proceed with the attack of smaller built-up areas leading to the central complex. Fighting, will involve a series of coordinated actions at small-unit level. Elements are required to conduct a whole range of military operations. Funneling of forces favors the defender by limiting the number of maneuver elements that may be applied against a series of hubs that must be confronted in succession. Unlike deserts, forests, and jungles with a limited variety of fairly uniform, recurring terrain features, the urban battlefield is composed of an ever-changing mix of natural and manmade features. Frequently, larger forces will have units fighting on open terrain, on terrain within built-up areas, and in complexes where these two distinct terrain forms merge. Fighting is characterized by a multidimensional battle. It may be fought simultaneously above the ground, in the upper stories of buildings, on roofs, in buildings at street level, in the street, and below street level in sewer and subways systems. Sub terrain areas become contaminated hot spots after power goes out. Rain also makes storm and other sewer systems hazardous or impassible. Chemical agents are washed into drains as a result system contains agent concentrations much higher than surface. These effects become more pronounced as agents are absorbed by brick or unsealed concrete sewer walls. Under ground routes are of primary concern when considering guerrilla avenues of approach and lines of communications. Sewers, subways, tunnels, cisterns and basements provide mobility, concealment cover and storage sites. Over pressures are magnified greatly. Note; see Appendix overall tips Sub terrain.
MOUT; overall maneuvers well be more methodical and synchronized. Isolation degrades C4I. Combat is more non stop, much more physically demanding, more hand to hand, lots of fatigue. High casualty rates due to falling debris and lots of sharp items around. Explosions produce more flying debris especially glass. Casualties may occur on any level of buildings, though most occur out side. Troop density and close proximity of combat makes it difficult to provide supporting fires. MOUT consist of ready made cover and concealment. Back door inters generally provide better cover than front. Usually structures must be attacked before enemy in side can be. There will be more damage by fire. High rises can take 24 - 48 hours to burn out and cool down enough to be reoccupied. Destroyed buildings change topography of area, making rally points hard to recognize. Use phase lines (face of buildings not streets or allies) thus keeping your units from over advancing. When possible move along main streets parallel to buildings, i.e. no crossing main streets. Best to cross streets in the middle of the block. Right sides of streets are generally safer to move down. Remain on same side of street as foe. Move across danger areas one at a time, however once the area comes under fire it is best to cross as a group, all the while opening fire on suspected enemy locations. While crossing danger areas or while on patrols in general, each Marine is detailed to observe and or cover a certain area, such as second-floor windows on the opposite side of the street. When a street is narrow observing or firing into windows across the way can be difficult, because observer is forced to look along the buildings, rather than into windows or doors. When streets are wider observation throw openings is better. Engagement ranges MOUT; may vary from point-blank to the maximum effective range of a weapon. Minimum arming ranges must be considered. Engagement ranges average 300 feet, 90% of engagements are at 100’or less. Few personal targets visible beyond 150 feet. 5% at 300’ or more. Even snipers rarely take a shot farther than 1000’. If you spot foe some distance away, take him out. If close up, aim in and allow the rest of your unit to react thus maximizing firepower in direction of possible foe unit, this is especially true in jungle combat. Also in jungle “if in doubt, don’t shoot”. With two or more troops running for cover, shoot closest one to cover firsts. A foe in the open is worth two in the bush.  If your unit has group under fire, shoot troops farthest away from you first. They well be the ones going for the flanking moves. Units under fire tend to make a stand or retreat vs. attacking into unknown terrain. Do not retrieve your first expended magazine during contact because it will consume valuable time. As for locations of the shooter and the target. Both the shooter and the target may be inside or outside the same or separate buildings. Either one may be inside while the other is outside. Target angles can be either vertical or horizontal, or a combination of both. Spotting shooters; by analyzing impact points. Snow can give more indication of the direction of enemy fire. Spin of bullet vs. ricochet direction? Flat trajectory indicates elevated firing position. Direct fire round will sail right by you if it misses but falling (HE) round kills if it misses by yards. Direct fire sounds like ripping canvas, howitzers a two tone whistle. Direction of sound, bullets passing by your ear well sound like a bumble bee. Smoke from initial shot’s, due to excess oil in barrel. You might want to swab barrel before shooting. Dust from muzzle blast. Black smoke from surface of barrel can be seen by observer. Also steam from human bodies. Brass casings being ejected may reflect sunlight. Shoot at possible cover and concealment points, shooters tend to be located high; foe may use one high shooter to drawl your unit into area of multiple low shooters. Periodically expose items to drawl fire, i.e. “the old helmet on the bayonet”. Lastly you may have to advance under fire and have spotter (otter) watch for enemy. Spotters should not provide cover, so vision is not obscured by smoke. Orange smoke/dust indication of impact of armor piecing (AP) incendiary rounds. With tracers, impacts can be indicated by ricochets (or lack there of incase of hitting a human body). Most impact points cannot be spotted beyond tracer burn out range; around 3000’ for 7.62 mm, beyond that range you need visual aids. Scopes and binoculars ¼ out of focus can see thermal signature of rounds (aka Swirl) going down range. Swirl caused by pressure differences in air that reflects light differently. Also I.R. at night or day and for spotting muzzle flashes too. Modified suppressers that can ID units.

Vehicle commanders and drivers can walk gunners on target using ADDRACS, target reference points and the field expedient mil system (one finger, four fingers from the hay stack).  The impacts from MK-19 are easily seen and can be used to orient the other gunners.

Note add Support Group/element or cell, to assault unit; i.e. CAS, transportation, air, motor and sea or river craft. To also include communication etc.

Organizing the assault unit: it well always have two basic elements, first an assault element (A.E.) the unit may include demolitions experts, electronic technicians, and whatever specialists that may be needed i.e. pilot, if the objective is to steal a specific enemy aircraft. Secondly, there is a security element; (S.E.). Each Marine must know the responsibilities and roles in either element. S.E. responsibilities, are securing the area or building in the case of MOUT and stopping enemy reinforcements from becoming involved, or to stop any would-be escapers and to cover the withdrawal of the A.E. and or entire assault unit. Finally, they may provide the suppressive fire on objective. Immediately prior to the assault, suppressive fires are increased on the objective and continue until A.E. has entered the building. Isolate buildings by fire, layaway avenues of approach to building and its exits. Suppressive fires located outside adjacent to entry on the upper floor of previously cleared building. As unit inters supporting fire shifts to upper levels then to exits and adjacent buildings to cover enemy withdrawal or reinforcement routes. If your unit most retreat vacate two or three houses down the road at a time, burning first one for concealment. Burning out buildings is best at night, smoke can interfering with daytime combat. Conventional smoke screens in MOUT can drawl fire. The A.E. responsibilities are to secure the objective. The following fundamentals are to be considered when assaulting buildings: You should always try to attack buildings from top down. Know strength of roofs. Give the enemy an escape route. Enemy usually not very motivated to make a stand in someone else’s living room, lol! Attacking form the top also avoids enemy heavy-weapons positions, which will usually be located on lower levels. Considerations which will affect the decision on the point of entry; identify the route to the building from the last covered and concealed, or assault position. This is usually the shortest distance, immediately across the adjacent street, back yard, or alley. Ask yourself; from what enemy-held buildings can the enemy observe my avenue of approach? Then orient observation and fires on those points to break the mutual support between enemy positions. Being able to predict suspected enemy positions by reading the terrain is an important skill to develop. The assault element (AE), regardless of size, well attempt to close on the stern or flank(s) of an objective building, which well have more and better cover. If the building is located on a street with numerous adjacent buildings under enemy control an envelopment is not feasible, a stern attack is required. Alternatively, the attacker can initially clear nearby buildings and then attack the final objective simultaneously from the stern and flanks. Other considerations are the availability of access means to upper stories; again A.E. may seize an adjoining structure. Also consider the cover and concealment in the area. Often you will have to evaluate the relative risks of scaling the side of a building or clearing upward from the ground floor. Clearing from the bottom up may be the most frequent method in isolated, detached areas. Assaulting the bottom floor and clearing upward is a common method, except where buildings form continuous fronts. In this situation with ground level entry, the attacker attempts to close on flanks or stern of the buildings. When attacking from ground up, unit has better option of burning out enemy on upper floors. Shots fired up through floors can cause enemy to surrender quickly. First establish foot hold inside, than fight quickly to top floor and then down. If your mission requires long ropes, consider the use of 1" nylon tubing instead. It is lighter, more compact, and just as strong. Also garden hoses. Wire (communications) can hold up to 90 lbs. per cable. Black wire may have current going though it. Grappling hooks make sure there is enough rope to reach anchor point. Stand as close to building as possible assuring less exposure and horizontal distance hook must travel. Coils, one in hand with hook few in other, the rest coiled on ground. Throw gentle even lob, once the hook is in window, pulling it to one side ensures good bite. Keep tension on rope after securing bite. Scaling walls, you can climb pass windows at first, on your way to the rooftop, when repel back down. Clear rooms first before climbing to close as you past windows. Use grenades, keep weapon at the ready. Avoid initial entry at middle floor windows; if a middle floor is breached, it is used as a foot hold only, you still clear upper floors first. Each A.E. should, keep the procedures simple. Each member must know his entrance point. Set selector lever to full automatic. Fix bayonets or ready K-bars, for close encounters. Attack right behind prep fire and or percussions. Preferably, entry is gained through walls breached by explosives or gun fire. AE should avoid windows and doors as entry points because they are usually covered by fire or booby trapped, avoid obvious gates or holes in fences or walls. Move from room to room through walls. Walls can usually be breached with axes. House holing/mouse holing methods. Look though (can be as small as ice pick), also throw or drop though and go though types. Select rooms that have ceilings intact and Place an explosive charge against the ceiling and or floor wall juncture. Pros i.e. advantages, wall can provide climbing aid to ceiling hole. Charges placed at corners might provide access to four or eight rooms. Cons- i.e. disadvantages, this may weaken structures too.  In general, the resultant explosion should kill or stun defenders providing uncontested access to the next floor. Charges used for breaching outside walls are placed at fire places or brick walls better to prevent walls or buildings from collapsing. Box wall building designs have reinforced concrete walls exterior and interior difficult to breach. Inter wall 6-8”. The floor plans are predictable. Hallways circle around stairwells or elevators. Brick designs, exterior walls of buildings are at least 3 bricks thick. Total of 6 bricks between buildings. The floor plans are different on ground floors than upper levels, but over all similar in area. Holes made in outside or inside walls should be staggered, so enemy cannot shot through more than one at a time. Ideally, you should start on blind side of buildings that is the side without windows. House/mouse holing can be used offensively or defensively. Not possible after buildings reduced to rubble. Again never use obvious gates or holes in fences or walls. Clearing downward, stairs are covered by posting guard, they are not used. Enemy mouse holes to lower floors should never be used. Entrance to lower floors is gained by breaching the floor/ceiling with explosives and/or using lowered rope. After entry cover entries to basements or attics first. If there is a basement or attic it should be cleared first. Never stand in front of or near a closed door; never hide by the prominent window of a house. While inside buildings continue to watch outside. Hug inside walls. Clearing is usually done in circular pattern, from one main hallway. Secure the central stairwell. Stairwells, access ladders/fire escapes, usually are located at ends of hallways too. These plus large open rooms or areas or rooms with a view, i.e. balconies or roof tops over looking these areas and other points of interest are your prime objectives. All these locations provide mobility, concealment and can serve as relatively good fighting holes or sniper positions. Use extreme caution when in these areas during clearing phases.
Securing rooms do not open doors by hand or attempt to kick them open. Shoot the door open by firing several rounds through the lock or blast the hinges, use battering rams or blow the door in with explosives. One Marine is positioned to cover inside and out side of the room. Interring rooms first Marine in, decides where next Marine goes. Example; next Marine left/right, second Marine repeats as he inters. Very tactics to avoid patterns. When possible tactics for adjacent buildings should be just opposite previous tactics. Always wear your load bearing equipment (LBE) buckled. If you're wounded, fellow Marines can drag you by the shoulder straps.
Reorganization; cleared levels/floors and rooms should be marked (chalk, tape, spray paint or other aerosol sprays that may show with certain sensors), doors should at least be left open. At minimum secured areas or rooms are reported. As rooms are cleared attacker should fortify places as soon as occupying them. In a cleared building, reorganization to repel enemy counterattacks must be rapid. Initially (until S.E. member takes over) selected members of the AE will be assigned to cover potential enemy counterattack routes to any floor or building. The requirements are determined by the type of building and by the nature of adjacent terrain. For example, numerous open spaces require increased fire support to suppress/obscure enemy gunners while reinforcement units move across open terrain. Conversely, areas with numerous covered routes will decrease fire support requirements. On the other hand open areas are easier for one Marine to cover if the only concern is repelling enemy forces.  Deconstruction lumber is used to build later wells. They are pulled up stairs during attack. Have a pre-mission and post-mission checklist to ensure that nothing is left behind. Avg. 30 minutes to clear structure. Thus having taken an enemy position, the Squad cannot relax. They need to regroup, assess the cost of their attack, prepare for possible counter-attack, tend to their wounded and see too any prisoners they may have taken. If swift reinforcement by fresh troops is forthcoming, you can use the newly acquired position as a springboard for your own advance, allowing the original unit’s time to regroup before moving in behind them to take over in turn. If such is not the case, and further advance is necessary, the Squad would have little time to make its preparations before resuming. It is during this point the Squad is most vulnerable to counter-attack, occupying unfamiliar ground the enemy knew well, having expended ammunition, energy and quite likely blood to get there. During WWII, the second most important item of equipment to any Marine, after his weapon, was his entrenching tool. Troops learned to dig at least shallow pits the moment they halted in expectation of the coming barrage. Troops were trained to begin to dig even if the objective they had taken was but one of several they were tasked with that day. This was the only response to the inevitable bombardment they would shortly endure from the defender's artillery and mortar, excepting a night raid. The only way to survive its effects was to dig, deep. If no immediate advance was to be ordered though, a more thorough consolidation could begin, shifting quickly from attack to defense. An ideal position would enable the defense to take the approaching enemy from one flank, rather than simply head on. The situation around the unit i.e. Battalion etc. would also need to be assessed. Circumstances could arise where one Battalion had made far better progress than those on its flanks in a major assault. Any feeling of pride in such an achievement would be tempered by the knowledge that the Battalion was actually more vulnerable as a result. It could find itself occupying a ‘bulge’ in the line, meaning instead of there being friendly troops on both flanks there were in fact enemy units. The commander would also be trying to find out what had happened to any units covering his flanks, in case they had faltered and he needed to protect a vulnerable approach by redeploying his own men. The Battalion Commander would also have to decide whether all the gains his troops had made were in fact defensible. It would be highly unlikely that all his subunits had advanced to the same depth. Some units would undoubtedly be pushed further out than others, making for an uneven perimeter. Some units may have to be pulled back to remedy this, a galling prospect for men who had fought hard to take a particular feature only to be told to abandon it shortly afterwards. There was an equally unappealing converse to this situation. His troops may have gained a tenuous hold on a particularly important piece of terrain, pulling back from which would offer the enemy a notable advantage, such as high ground for artillery or other observers. A renewed localized assault could be required to improve the position, or the Marines in place could simply be ordered to hold on until relieved. Senior commanders were always aware that an enemy who had been decisively repulsed and had no extensive lines of defense on which to fall back himself was acutely vulnerable to a rapid counter stroke. Following assault mortars were on call to deliver a salvo against any enemy counterattack delivered against the riflemen in this most vulnerable stage as they shifted from assault to defense.  
note the below yellow highlighted info is new but I have not placed it yet. 

Plumb card and search ticket cards? Term search ticket card IMO not much more info than you would find in my Tri-F under vehicle check point etc. section. Rule # 3 defense. Can anyone list these items on a search ticket?

Cordon and knock man of house asked out first to give permission for search. Outer circle keep people out, inter keeps people in target buildings. More places you search less likely enemy to hide things there again.

Longer search time more by standers gathering around area.

Weapons employment;

Small arms as for prepping your weapon for action you should smoke the sights, thus insuring a uniform flat black surface to maximize contrasts. However, a black uniformed enemy well blind in with the front sight post of your weapon at a distance. Always work action, to verify functioning of weapon and check ammo. Marines usually carry no more than 12, forty round magazines. Magazine weight 1¼ lbs each. Place magazines upside down in your pouches to keep dirt out. First few and next to last few rounds in magazine are tracers. First few to indicate aim, next to last few to indicate low on ammo. Use one magazine full of tracers during infiltration and extraction, so the tracers can be used to identify enemy positions to air support. Never chamber round into hot weapon until you intend to fire. Heat expansion causes cook offs and jamming. Ammo cool enough to hold is safe to fire. Average barrel temperature 200-700 degrees. Light rifles have lighter barrels than machine guns, can over heat with 100 rounds in less than a minute. Barrel over heating depends on weather and exposure to sun too. Water cooled systems; a steady steam from jacket meant system was working. Do not let hot parts of weapons contact snow. With rapid cooling barrel will warp. Cold metal becomes brittle. Most braking parts are moving ones i.e. sears, firing pins, operating rods, recoil springs and magazine springs. Damage accurse mostly in beginning stages. When you first open fire, it helps to fire at a low rate of fire. Snow on weapons melts, seeps inside and freezes. Hands can be cupped over breeches to prevent and protect from cold in general. Infantry units should have more pistols for MOUT. There are many situations in buildings where a pistol is better than a rifle. Pistols provide back up weapons when rifles or MGs brake down. Improvised lanyards for the pistols using phone chords. These automatically retract when the pistol was holstered, unlike the straight issued chord. Note; the issued cord would be better for retrieving weapon especially from enemy who might have taken it, i.e. the cord instantly response to your jerking on it. Revolver pros; they can be fired from the holster. Better for using ammo that is not specifically for it, by rapping cartridges with tape to fit snug in the cylinder. Would only be good for close shot. By design, revolvers already leak gas from cylinder and barrel which slows muzzle velocity. In addition leaving more powder residue behind that can be detected by forensics. Revolvers can be cocked with one hand, with out the aid of a table or other corner edge needed with an automatic slide action pistol. No ejected empty casings, thus position of shooter difficult to determine. Cons; are bulky, take longer time to load, especially without quick loads, fewer rounds available too. The 9mm pistols cons, weak springs in the magazines, which tended to cause failure to fire and the tendency of bullets to fall out of magazines not fully loaded.
When moving, use a 30-round magazine in the SAW. Attach a drum in the ORP or once in position in a hasty ambush. SAW drum pouches are tightly fitted and tend to pop open when you drop into the prone. Use cloth tape with quick-release tabs to prevent this.
In MOUT munitions consumption is grater. During first day it can be five times grater than other types of combat. There is more recon by fire, as well as many glancing blows on hard flat surfaces, 25% of impact fuses will fail. Rounds can be purposely ricocheted, especially on stone streets or sidewalks. Delay fused rounds are better for ricocheted fire. Aim fragmentation round at closed windows or at back wall of opened one, (AP) round at surrounding framework. Bunker apertures/port holes usually weaker then surrounding area. With impact fuse rubble occurs into room, delay fuse rubble out side room thus producing more sprawling. High explosive impact fused rounds achieve excellent results against troops in the open. HE, variable timed fuses, are recommended for discouraging movement in the open. HE, fuse delay, (bursts .05 seconds after impact) are good for penetrating rooftops of structures and causing casualties within structures. The round must penetrate the roof and top floor since experienced city fighters or snipers do not fight from the top floor. Proximity fuses for keeping OPs off rooftops. Mortars are well suited for combat in built-up areas because of their high rate of fire, steep angle of fall, and short minimum range. If the mortar is firing in excess of 885 mils to clear a frontal mask, the enemy counter battery threat is reduced. Chemical munitions are area coverage weapons, smoke or CS is used to clear a built-up area to drive enemy out of fortifications or to canalize the enemy, also to limit collateral damage or civilian casualties. Smoke employed in the defense obscures enemy air and ground observation, thereby limiting the accuracy of weapons and target acquisition. Smoke placed on roof tops by attacker can prevent defensive observations. Sometimes screening with smoke pots, generators, or artillery smoke munitions should be considered to cover the withdrawal of defending forces or the movement of attacking forces, or indeed the lack there of. Or to conceal attacks with white phosphorus rounds. Phosphorus wounded as shares of phosphorus is exposed to air it would burn again, keep victims rapped up. When covering a built-up area with a smoke haze or blanket, it is essential that all buildings be covered. Failure to obscure tall buildings, towers, and steeples will provide enemy observers with reference points for placement of rounds. Illumination or smoke rounds can be used to reorient maneuver forces.
Grenades: Joke, aka infantry personal artillery. Frag grenade wt one lbs Avg. 4-5 oz of explosive. 3-5 second fuses. Terms of nomenclature, powder train / fuse striker / firing pen igniter or detonator at end of fuse. WW1 frag 22 oz wt, two oz black powder. TNT shattered fragments to much but it was used in WW1. U.S. produced 50 million in WW11. Avg. Battalion used 500 per day. MK-19 40mm (1960s) wt 140 lbs 9 oz shell, 2km range 17 second flight time. AP round could breach 60 mm of armor. 100 rpm, jammed every 5k rounds. U.S. Battalion equipped with ten weapons. USSR (1970) copy MK -19 the AGS-17 30 mm, wt. 90 lbs, max range 1700 m. 6 oz shell, 100 rpm, jammed every 1k rounds some times exploded. USSR Battalion equipped with eight weapons. M203 DUAL PURPOSE WEAPON (DPW) Significant characteristics of the M203, 40-mm Grenade Launcher, are; Maximum Range 400m, Minimum Safe Firing Range 31m, Minimum Arming Range 14-28m. This must be considered in close-in firing to insure that round will explode. Range at which a .5 i.e. 50% probability of target hit can be expected: Area Target (fire team size unit) 350m, Area Target (Vehicles/Emplacements) 200m, Point Target-Window 125m, Bunker Aperture 50m, Rounds; M651E1 Tactical CS; Effective in driving the enemy from structures, the round has some incendiary characteristics. It could be a fire hazard when used in buildings. M583 White Star Parachute; Is an effective signal and a battlefield illuminant that can be placed 300 meters forward of the squad position to illuminate an area 200 meters in diameter for a period of 40 seconds. XM585 Star Clusters; Are red, white, and green; used for signaling. CAUTION; the green star cluster may appear white in bright sunlight. XM635 Ground Smoke; is used for marking locations; not used for screening. Available in red, yellow, and green.

Hand grenades; AN-M8HC White Smoke and M18 Colored Smoke Grenades. These grenades are used for screening; to supplement screening provided by artillery, mortars, smoke pots or generators; and to mark locations or provide visual signals. Smoke grenades should be carried in or on the pack and not on the LBE (load bearing equipment) you do not fight with smoke grenades, and if you need one, 99 times out of 100, you will have time to get it from your pack. Rap paper tape through the rings of grenades and then tape the ring to the body of the grenade, making at least one rap around the entire ring. The paper tape will tear for fast use, while cloth tape is more difficult and plastic is too difficult. This also reduces noise, and covering the ring hole prevents snagging. However, your finger can still rip threw to grasp the ring for pulling. CS gas grenades are ideal for stopping or slowing down enemy troops and dogs pursuing your team and are effective in damp and wet weather, whereas CS powder will dissipate. WP grenades have a great psychological effect against enemy troops and can be used for the same purpose as CS grenades. The use of CS and WP at the same time will more than double their effectiveness. Keep pilots informed as to the use of smoke and especially WP. They may mistake them for marking rockets indicating an enemy position and attack you. Each team should carry one thermite grenade for destruction of either friendly or enemy equipment. M-34 WP/aka Thermite or incendiary hand grenade, the flame agent ignites when exposed to air, attaches to skin, clothing and continues to burn including the metal casing. Its smoke is not toxic but concentrated in small areas can cause choking and suffocation, smoke grenades too. M34 WP often used to destroy flammable objects, to drive the enemy from structures, or to create smoke screens to conceal movement. CAUTION: The M34 has a 35m bursting radius. MK 33 aka concussion/stun/flash bang grenade 178 decimals four times as high as shot gun. Concussion much greater than frag type. Very effective against troops in enclosed areas this holds true for fragmentation grenades too. Over all MK 33 reduces over all casualties. Minimizes friendly WIA. Stun grenades produce less smoke, fragmentation smoke is light black. MK3 A3 can be used for light demolitions. The MK3A2 offensive hand grenade, commonly referred to as the concussion grenade. The MK3A2 has an effective casualty radius in open areas of 2 meters. In winter or at altitude self-propelled grenade ranges maybe reduced due to slower burning of crimp charges and propellants. Throwing range max 40 m, 10-20 m is common. When throwing during winter hands most be completely dry, heavy mittens reduce range and accuracy. Vigorously throw grenades into rooms or bunkers so they kareem about, denying the enemy an opportunity to throw them back. In addition, at night grenades should only be thrown into these areas. M67 Fragmentation when used with the M213 time fuse, the grenade should be "cooked off" for two seconds to deny the enemy time to throw it back. Use extreme caution when throwing in thick vegetation, up hill or up stairs with upper windows brake glass first, always have cover chosen before throwing. Exploding on floors made of wood will sprawl splinters down to lower floors. (At night, throwing rocks at foe as rouse grenade ploy, the third time you throw a real one). M-34 fragments 35 m from point of det. For the M67 fragmentation grenade the effective kill zone five meter radius, while the casualty-inducing radius is approximately fifteen meters. Explosives 6 oz. wt 14 oz. fuse 4 seconds. Shrapnel cannot penetrate books, bricks, cinder blocks, doors, or sand bags. Causalities 100% with in 2m, 75% with in 4m, 50% with in 6 m, 25% with in 10 m, 5-10 %  15 m, and less than 1% 20 m away. Over all less than 10 % of causalities are KIA.WW11 grenades less effective.
Flash bang Grenade using aluminum powder i.e. when it is exposed to air it burns. Same tech that is behind FAE bombs.

Flame throwers have both physical and psychological effect. They do not require pin point accuracy, but fire most not spread to structures needed by friendly forces. “Blind angle burst” to exploit splattering effects of the thickened fuel, with out exposing gunner (i.e. ricocheting off walls around corners) also “traversing burst” to cover large front. “Wet shot” unlit burst of fuel, lit by subsequent shot. Effective for destroying vehicles, equipment, or troops in basements/caves. Or to booby-trap an area. With a tank, fuel is allowed to seep into crevasses, vision ports or gun ports before it is lit. Flame throwers require no special back blast preparation. Operator most be provided cover while being brought forward. The British were not much taken with the backpack flamethrower, reasoning the operator was extremely vulnerable and had to fire at particularly close range. A vehicle-mounted weapon offered the possibility of much improved range and sustainability. Tank mounted systems had a range of 100 yards with a 60 second stream. Normally multi short bursts are used not a long single stream. Korean era flamethrowers; range 45 yards, 10 second continuous stream (fuel supply). Remote control vehicles can be equipment with flame throwers. No concern for operator, Video images are less detailed and there is no smell. Sound could be turned off too. Over all results less remorse by operators. Flamethrowers first used in WW 1 by Germany than French. British napalm fuel had greater range than gas liquid. M2A1-7 portable flame thrower effective range 20-50 m. M202 and M202A1, Multishot Rocket Launcher (FLASH), range for area fire out to 500 m. bunker aperture 50 m. Warhead a thicken flame agent ignites when exposed to air. Minimum safe combat range 20 m. which is the burst radius of warhead. Has a back blast which must be considered. Operator must still be provided cover. Used to knock out bunkers or fortified positions should be aimed directly at the aperture. Even if the round or burst misses, enough of the flaming material will enter the position to cause casualties. In Chechnya the Russians deployed RPO-A Shmel rocket-powered flamethrowers with a ‘capsule’ warhead containing 4 liters of liquid that produced a flame 4 m wide by 40 m long. It was first employed during the Soviet Afghan War against Mujahideen cave complexes, where it earned the ominous nickname, the ‘Devil’s Tube’ (IMO not tube but DICK). The 2.1 kg thermobaric warhead of the rocket-powered flame has the equivalent power of a 122 mm shell.

Machine gun sections;
A four or five man team could realistically transport a gun, tripod and some 1000 rounds, which would enable the weapon to operate for a reasonable duration while further supplies were brought up. The machine gun was capable of high angle fire against targets beyond obstacles such as trees or buildings, but such fire was largely speculative and judged wasteful of ammunition. The strength of the weapon was that it could literally sweep an area with automatic fire, completely dominating a whole expanse. MGs were not naturally offensive weapons. To operate effectively they needed a fixed position and access to a ready supply of ammunition. That largely limited their use in the ideal fast moving infantry attack. The infantrymen themselves represented something of a problem in that they placed a notable restriction on the gunners’ field of fire. A two gun Section supporting the advance of a Rifle Company in either V shape or arrowhead was faced with a peculiar problem. Once the riflemen left the start line, at which the MGs were located, they would quickly begin to obscure the field of fire. Unless the guns could be sited in some elevated, and by definition vulnerable position, their fire would have to be restricted to certain ‘lanes’.  These would mark the boundaries between the advancing Rifle Platoons, and would have to be kept completely clear if the gunners were to operate. Such circumstances notably compromised the effectiveness of the MGs. The solution was flanking fire. This harks back to the basic fire and movement techniques (rule # 3 COE). The Section would set up a position to either the left or right of the Company it was detailed to support for an attack. However, it was in the defensive that the MG truly came into its own. A key principle in resisting an enemy assault was to keep his riflemen at arms length. That was precisely what the MG was designed for. When deployed as part of a fixed line of defenses, the crews were relieved of the necessity to ‘shoot round’ their own troops. They could then exploit the weapons ability to saturate a whole area with automatic fire, making it impossible for any living thing to move within this sector of fire. Such an area could extend for a depth of 500 - 1000 meters and a breadth of several hundred. That a single gun team of three or four men could accomplish this released at least a Squad to bolster either the line or reserve. MGs operate best in pairs. In the defense, their placement was such that any attempt to outflank one gun brought the assault troops into view of its partner, and vice versa.

Note 2/07/11 at this point there is very little difference in my copy and the blog so I've skipped down to Characteristics of military operations in cold climates and or mountains (MT). And the info has not yet been organized or placed.
CIS Army lessons from Grozny

These include:
Culturally orient your forces so you’re not your own worst enemy out of cultural ignorance. Once insulted or mistreated, they became active fighters or supported the active fighters.
You need some way of sorting out the combatants from the non-combatants. The days of uniforms and organized units is over. The Russians were forced to resort to searching the pockets of civilians for military equipment and used dogs for sniffing for gunpowder and gun oil.
The psychological impact of high intensity urban combat is so intense that you need a large reserve to rotate units in and out of combat.
The Russians were surprised and embarrassed at the degree to which the Chechens exploited the use of cell phones, Motorola radios, improvised TV stations, light video cameras, and the Internet to win the information war.
Russians faced lots of snipers, these were dealt with massive fire power.
They found that boundaries between units were tactical weak points, and horizontal boundaries, in some cases, the Chechens held the third floor and above, while the Russians held the first two floors and or roof. If a unit holding the second floor evacuated parts of it without telling the unit on the ground floor, the Chechens would move in and attack the ground floor unit through the ceiling. Often this resulted in fratricide as the ground floor unit responded with uncontrolled fire through all of the ceilings, including the ones below that section of the building still occupied by Russians. Entire battles were fought through floors, ceilings, and walls without visual contact.
Ambushes were common. Sometimes having three tiers. Chechens would be underground, on the ground floor, and on the roof. Each group had a different task in the ambush.
The most common response by the Chechens to the Russian indirect and aerial firepower was hugging the Russian unit. If that halted the support it became a man on man fight if they didn't cease the supporting fires, the Russian units suffered just as much as the Chechens, sometimes even more, and the morale effect was much worse on the Russians.
Chechens weren't afraid of tanks and BMPs. They assigned groups of RPG gunners to fire volleys at the lead and trail vehicles. Once they were destroyed, the others were picked off one-by-one. Chechens chose firing positions high enough or low enough to stay out of the fields of fire of tank and BMP weapons.
Russian wounded and dead were hung upside down in windows of defended Chechen positions. Russians had to shoot at the bodies to engage the Chechens.
Russians were satisfied with the combat performance of most of their Infantry weapons. T-72 tank was dead meat -- too vulnerable, too awkward, not agile, no visibility, poor weapons coverage at short ranges. They were replaced by smaller numbers of older tanks and more self propelled artillery, more ADA weapons, and more BMPs. Precision guided weapons and UAVs were very useful. There was some need for non-lethal weapons, mostly riot gas and tranquilizer gas, not stuff like sticky foam. The Russian equivalent of the M202 Flash flame projector and the Mk 19 grenade launcher were very useful weapons. Ultimately, a strong combined arms team and flexible command and control meant more than the individual weapons use.
Taliban infantry tactics
Why don’t Taliban use pistols i.e. where are the Jessie James of Afghanistan?
Have the Taliban used the D.C. sniper tactic of Mobil/vehicle shooting platforms?

They are extremely disciplined with all weapons and only engaged targets who were within the effective ranges. Firing their AKs on single shot. Machineguns fired in bursts to conserve ammunition.
This is a dedicated enemy that is not easily frightened: Ineffective suppression is absolutely ineffective. The enemy is not scared by noise. During the fight we observed a fighter calmly aim an RPG while 50 cal rounds were kicking up within a meter of his position. Typically crew served weapons do not dislodge enemy fighters the enemy is unnerved by HE 40mm HE, mortars, and CAS.


Taliban normally utilize RPGs on mounted forces and small arms on dismounted troops. Often engaged the dismounted at 150 m, vehicles at 200-300m with RPGs and PK MGs, They would suppress the turret gunner with PKs and use volleys of RPGs on the vehicle fronts to start fires, not the troop compartments then wait for the dismount. Outside 300m attacks were with rockets and mortars. They focused fire on heavy weapons or radios.

They have maneuvered on platoons but generally preferred to keep the platoon at a distance and maneuver about the battlefield in defilade i.e. irrigation ditches (karez irrigation ditches) to attack the flanks. These ditches ranged from four to seven feet deep and made any frontal attacks very difficult. They well fight to the death when fixed by fires. The platoon has had great success using vehicles to deceive the enemy into expecting a mounted attack from one direction while attacking them from another direction with dismounted forces.

First the terrain often presented poor off road traffic ability. Use dismounted infantry or air assault. The mujahideen learned to take out command vehicles early in the battle. Command vehicles were always distinguished by extra antennae, and may often come to a stop first and maneuver in a different manner than the rest of a patrol.

The Mujahideen formed special armored-vehicle hunter-killer teams where 50 to 80% of the personnel were armed with RPG-7s. This could be up to 15 RPGs. When there weren't mortars available, these groups also used their RPG-7s as a form of pseudo-artillery and conducted RPG preparation fires. The Soviets tried to stay at least 300 meters away from the Mujahideen--out of AK-47 and RPG- 7 moving target range.

The Mujahideen did vary ambush positions in the same ambush site. Their primary concern was to hit the column where it was the weakest ‐ usually in the middle or rear ‐ unless the purpose was to bottle up the column.

Mujahideen received airline meals in the field.
Airstrip ? looked like a bandaid was used to fix wires to rocket casing for firing.

Deciding where to ambush a long convoy is usually driven by geography, intent and escape routes. If the terrain at the ambush site is very constricted, the guerrilla may want to attack the head of the convoy and block the route with a combination of a road block and burning vehicles.

The Soviet surrendered the initiative in movement control to the Mujahideen and never regained it. Consequently most of the Soviet actions in the area were reactive. In a guerrilla war, the loss of the initiative becomes decisive in the outcome of the tactical combat. What mostly contributed to Mujahideen success in inflicting heavy losses on the enemy was their elaborate planning, secrecy in movement and coordinated action. This became possible through detailed information about the enemy including the size, direction of movement and estimated time of arrival of the enemy convoy to ambush site.


Russian tank barrels were incapable of dealing with hunter-killer teams fighting from basements and second or third-story positions.
The Russians attached ZSU 23-4 and 2S6 track-mounted antiaircraft guns to armored columns to respond to these difficult-to-engage hunter-killer teams.
When the Soviets moved through heavy vegetation in Afghanistan, they would sometimes walk a wall of high-explosive fragmentation rounds in front of the vehicles to keep the RPG gunners at bay--or at least to ruin their aim. This is an expensive option in terms of artillery or mortar rounds, but it does work.
When practical, the best way to protect ground vehicles from the RPG is to put infantry well forward of the vehicles to find and destroy the RPG gunners. Combat vehicles should stay out of urban areas or areas dominated by overwatching terrain and tall trees until the infantry has cleared and posted the area. Moving under smoke or at night also helps. Convoys should have a security escort, smoke laying capability and helicopter coverage. All vehicle drivers should have several smoke grenades.

The Soviet's five divisions, four separate brigades and four separate regiments, and smaller support units of the 40th Army. Soviet strength varied from 90-104,000 troops.
The guerrilla mastery of the roads strangled the Soviet efforts. Soviet equipment losses included 118 jets, 333 helicopters, 147 tanks, 1314 armored personnel carriers, 433 artillery pieces or mortars, 1138 communications or CP vehicles, 510 engineering vehicles and 11,369 trucks. Many of these losses were on the highways, and a key loss was the large amount of cargo carrying trucks.
Soviet dead and missing in Afghanistan amounted to almost 15,000 troops, a modest percent of the 642,000 Soviets who served during the ten‐year war. And the dead tell no tales at home. Far more telling were the 469,685 casualties, fully 73 percent of the overall force, who ultimately returned home to the Soviet Union. Even more appalling were the numbers of troops who fell victim to disease (415,932), of which 115,308 suffered from infectious hepatitis and 31,080 from typhoid fever. Beyond the sheer magnitude of these numbers is what these figures say about Soviet military hygiene and the conditions surrounding troop life.

Approximately 620,000 Soviets served in Afghanistan. Of these, 525,000 were in the Soviet Armed Forces while another 90,000 were in the KGB and 5,000 were in the MVD. The Soviets invested much national treasure and lost 13,833 killed. Of their 469,685 sick and wounded, 10,751 became invalids.

Soviets refered to the Muj. As (Doosh-manh). Muj. Called the Kalashnikovs (Khali-kovs or Alah-kovs).

Mechanized forces usually fight effectively only when dismounted and when using their carriers for support or as a maneuver reserve. Ample engineer troops are essential for both sides.

The Soviet Ground Forces developed the bronegruppa concept to use the firepower of the personnel carriers in an independent reserve once the motorized rifle soldiers had dismounted. It was a bold step, for commanders of mechanized forces dislike separating their dismounted infantry from their carriers. However, terrain often dictated that the BMPs, BMDs and BTRs could not follow or support their squads. [The bronegruppa is a temporary grouping of four-five tanks, BMPs or BTRs or any combination of such vehicles. The BMPs (tracked combat vehicles) or BTRs (wheeled combat vehicles) are deployed without their normally assigned infantry squad on board and fight away from their dismounted troops. The grouping has a significant direct fire capability and serves as a maneuver reserve.] The bronegruppa concept gave the commander a potent, maneuverable reserve which could attack independently on the flanks, block expected enemy routes of withdrawal, serve as a mobile fire platform to reinforce elements in contact, serve as a battle taxi to pick up forces (which had infiltrated or air landed earlier and had finished their mission), perform patrols, serve in an economy of force role in both the offense and defense, and provide convoy escort and security functions. APC gun turnets lacked elevation to engage Muj. On steep cliffs along roads.

In general, the Soviet ground soldier remained tied to his personnel carrier and to the equipment which was designed to be carried by that personnel carrier. Consequently, the standard flak jacket weighed 16 kilograms (35 pounds). This was acceptable when dismounting a carrier and assaulting for less than a kilometer. However, a dismounted advance of three kilometers in flak jackets would stall due to troop exhaustion.
Armored vehicles were restricted to the roads and valley floors.

Without the ton or more of added armor, American hummer vehicles can speed across bad roads, or open terrain. But the weight of armor makes the hummer more difficult to maneuver cross country, or on bad roads, and requires driving at slower speeds to avoid damage to the suspension or other mechanical components. The Taliban prefer unarmored pick-up trucks or SUVs, which can quickly get away from the lumbering American vehicles.
If the Taliban take off on foot, they are also faster and more agile, because they are not carrying 30 or more pounds of body armor (vest and helmet). If the chase is close, the Taliban will drop most of what they are carrying (except their weapon) in order to get away.

The Afghans also fight differently than the Iraqis. For one thing, the Afghans are not as suicidal, and plan more carefully. The Iraqis favored the ambush, using fewer than a dozen people and a roadside bomb. The Iraqis were also enthusiastic about suicide bombers and using civilians as human shields. The Afghans prefer large scale attacks, carefully planned, and away from civilians.
But the Afghans will not shoot and run, like the Iraqis. The Afghans will shoot it out for hours, trying to drag out the battle until nightfall (when they have a better chance of sneaking away, in spate of U.S. night vision equipment.)
The Afghans are clever in that they will observe an American unit for days, weeks, or months, trying to find a weakness they can exploit. You cannot afford to get sloppy around the Afghans, because if they catch that lapse, they will exploit your mistake.

RPGs tactics
The Soviet Army assigned one RPG-7 per motorized rifle squad. Forces involved in regional conflicts tend to add more RPGs to their organizations. In the Iran-Iraq War, the Iranian 11-man squad had two RPG-7 gunners. In the Soviet-Afghan War, the Mujahideen averaged one RPG for every 10-12 combatants in 1983-1985 by 1987, two RPG-7s for every 10-12 combatants.
The Spetsnaz were not authorized RPG-7s in their TO&Es. Instead, they were issued RPG-16s or RPG-22s. The RPG-16s and RPG-22s lacked the range and punch of the RPG-7, so Spetsnaz used captured Chinese and Pakistani RPG-7s. They preferred these RPGs to the Soviet model since they are lighter, and have a folding bipod and a carrying handle.
The antitank round has a lethal bursting radius of 4 meters.
The Mujahideen learned that the best way to destroy a vehicle was to engage it with two or three RPGs simultaneously from a range of 20-50 meters. The chances of hitting the target with a lethal shot are greatly increased by firing a number of shots at close range. Further, the vehicle has fewer counter options. Rpg gunner’s operated with an infantry i.e. assistant crewman, and changed positions after every shot.

The current RPG 7 weighs about 17 pounds, with most grenades weighing five pounds each.
The real damage from RPG fire was the fragments from the exploding grenades. Even the anti-tank round (the most common fired by the RPG) would throw out wounding fragments for 10-15 feet. These rarely killed, but troops were often wounded
Most RPG anti-tank rounds can penetrate 12-20 inches of ordinary armor.
Without much practice, a user can hit a vehicle sized target most of the time at ranges of 50-100 meters. As an operator fires more rounds, he becomes capable of hitting stationary targets at up to 500 meters, and moving targets at 300 meters. It's this last skill that has made the RPG dangerous against helicopters.
Irregulars also like using the RPG as a form of artillery. Get a bunch of RPGs firing at the same area say, a kilometer away, and you will do some damage to any people walking around. The rather more rare (and expensive) anti-personnel RPG rockets will spew out fragments up to 30 feet or more.

The RPG launcher costs anywhere from $100-$500 (lots of second hand stuff out there.) The most common RPG ammo is the anti-tank rocket and these go for $50-100 each.
Actually, many troops have expressed an interest in just getting the RPG, which has a larger (6 pound) warhead, and is a lot cheaper (the RPG launcher goes for about $500 each, brand new, and the more advanced rockets can be had for under a hundred dollars each).

The RPG-29 is the most common recent development of the RPG line. It entered production just before the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. It is available through legitimate, or black market, arms dealers and is more expensive than the RPG-7 (which is manufactured by many countries.) RPG-29 launchers cost over $500 each, and the rockets go for about $300 each.
With a ten pound launcher firing a 14.7 pound 105mm rocket, the RPG-29 warhead is designed to get past some forms of reactive armor (ERA). The larger weapon (3.3 feet long when carried out, six feet long when ready to fire and 65 percent heavier than the 85mm RPG-7) is more difficult to carry around and fire, but has an effective range of 500 meters. The warhead can also penetrate five feet of reinforced concrete.

Soviet equipment
losses included 118 jets, 333 helicopters, 147 tanks, 1314 armored personnel carriers, 433 artillery pieces or mortars, 1138 communications or CP vehicles, 510 engineering vehicles and 11,369 trucks. Many of these losses were on the highways, and a key loss was the large amount of cargo‐carrying trucks.
Soviet strength varied from 90‐104,000 troops. The Soviet's five divisions, four separate brigades and four separate regiments, and smaller support units of the 40th Army.
However, terrain often dictated that the BMPs (tracked), BMDs and BTRs (wheeled) could not follow or support their squads. BTKs?
Forces were up‐gunned with extra machine guns, AGS‐17 and mortars.
[The bronegruppa is a temporary grouping of four‐five tanks, BMPs or BTRs‐or any combination of such vehicles. The BMPs (tracked combat vehicles) or BTRs (wheeled combat vehicles) are deployed without their normally assigned infantry squad on board and fight away from their dismounted troops. The grouping has a significant direct‐fire capability and serves as a maneuver reserve.]

The bronegruppa concept gave the commander a potent, maneuverable reserve which could attack independently on the flanks, block expected enemy routes of withdrawal, serve as a mobile fire platform to reinforce elements in contact, serve as a battle taxi to pick‐up forces (which had infiltrated or air‐landed earlier and had finished their mission), perform patrols, serve in an economy‐of‐force role in both the offense and defense, and provide convoy escort and security functions.
The soldier was never supposed to be more than 200 meters from his carrier. Consequently, the standard flak jacket weighed 16 kilograms (35 pounds). This was acceptable when dismounting a carrier and assaulting for less than a kilometer. However, a dismounted advance of three kilometers in flak jackets would stall due to troop exhaustion.

Senior leaders may find invaluable insights into the dangers and opportunities tactical units under their command may face in limited wars. Above all, the lessons in this book should help small unit leaders understand the need for security, deception, patrols, light and litter discipline, caution, vigilance, and the ability to seize the initiative in responding to unpredictable enemy actions and ambushes.

Soviet dead and missing in Afghanistan amounted to almost 15,000 troops, a modest percent of the 642,000 Soviets who served during the ten‐year war. And the dead tell no tales at home. Far more telling were the 469,685 casualties, fully 73 percent of the overall force, who ultimately returned home to the Soviet Union. Even more appalling were the numbers of troops who fell victim to disease (415,932), of which 115,308 suffered from infectious hepatitis and 31,080 from typhoid fever. Beyond the sheer magnitude of these numbers is what these figures say about Soviet military hygiene and the conditions surrounding troop life.

Units us corps x two divisions 1 armor cavalry regular and sup units. USSR army time four division and sup units each division of US and USSR time 12-16 Bn

ww11 average west division 10 AFV per 1k troop today 100 per 1k troops.

Characteristics of military operations in cold climates and or mountains (MT):

Geography and weather; note see also Step # 3 concept of operations; Part B.
Mountains are generally classified as low (600 to 1500 meters), medium (from 1500 to 3500 meters) and high-altitude (above 3600 meters). Siachin Glacier has the distinction of being the world's highest battlefield at 19K’. The Indian and Pakistani armies facing each other on this battlefield have been credited as being the foremost experts of high-altitude warfare. Casualties 80 % have been directly related to either cold or high altitude.
Five categories of altitude; Low altitude sea level to 5K’. Here, arterial blood oxygen saturation is 96 %. Moderate altitude from 5K to 8K’. No special conditioning or acclimatization require. Arterial blood oxygen saturation 92 %. High altitude extends from 8K to 14K’, arterial blood oxygen saturation ranges from 80-92 %. Altitude illness is common. Very high altitude from 14K to 18K’, altitude illness is the rule. Areas above 18K’ are considered Extreme altitudes. Altitude effects on available oxygen in air, at 100 meters or 328’ there is 99% as much oxygen available compared to sea level, 1000 m or 3280’ = 89%, 1500 m or 7921’ = 84%, 2000 m or 6561’ = 79%, 3000 m = 70%, 4000 m = 62%, 5000 m = 54%.

High altitudes are characterized by extreme cold, strong winds, thin air, intense solar and ultraviolet radiation, heavy fogs, deep snow, rapidly changing weather, including thunderstorms and blizzards the later can cut off outside contact for a week or longer. Avalanches and rockslides are not uncommon. Although jungle or forest may hug the mountain base, trees do not grow past 10K to 11,500 ft. depending on the latitude.

Medical concerns;
Acute altitude sickness (AMS) can occur at altitudes higher than 2,500 to 3,000 meters, which is lower than Pikes Peak. Disappearance of the symptoms of AMS (from four to seven days) does not indicate complete acclimatization. The incidence and severity of AMS symptoms vary with initial altitude, the rate of ascent, and the level of exertion and individual susceptibility. Athletes are no less likely to experience AMS than sedentary individuals. Some people just can’t adapt readily to high altitude. Occasionally Marines who originate from below 18k’ may suddenly lose adaptation know as chronic MT. sickness. Marines can also fall victim to High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). See also acclimatizing hypoxia hypoxemia.

Rules to avoid dying form altitude sickness;
Learn the early symptoms and be willing to recognize when you have them. Keep in mind your Judgment and thus self-evaluation well become impaired. The diagnosis of altitude sickness requires a high index of suspicion. Be advised: "If you are not doing well at altitude, its altitude illness until proven otherwise." Some of the behavioral effects are the same as a person who is intoxicated; irregular breathing, rapid hart beat, shortness of breath, slurred speech, headaches, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and loss of balance i.e. can’t walk a straight line. Decreased vigilance or concentration and memory. Increased errors in performing i.e. simple mental tasks. Increased lethargy or irritability, depression. Severe fatigue, sleep disturbances i.e. sleeplessness. Virtually all people who sleep above 10K ft. have an alteration in the control of their breathing during sleep. The result is a form of periodic breathing in which increasingly deep breaths are followed by a brief (5-30 second) period of apnea. The cycle then repeats itself. If the apnea episode is prolonged, the person may awaken suddenly with a profound sense of dyspnea. Awakening suddenly in a tent at high altitude feeling that one can’t breathe can be a frightening experience, and is often mistaken for the onset of HAPE. An immediate improvement upon awakening usually means that pulmonary edema is not present. Nocturnal awakening with dyspnea has triggered panic attacks. If periodic breathing at altitude is disturbing to the Marine, medics may prescribe 125mg of acetazolamide before bed. Also for AMS acetazolamide and dexamethosone, but only under medical supervision. Indigenous populations at high altitude often use narcotics, such as coca or hashish, to help manage the pain and stress of high altitude. Other treatments include evacuating to a lower altitude (a descent of at least 1,000 ft. for at least 24 hrs). Never ascend to sleep at a higher altitude with any symptoms of altitude sickness. Descend if your symptoms are getting worse while resting at the same altitude.

Acclimatization to altitude;
Deployments in mountains requires acclimatization before undertaking operations. Immediately upon arrival at high elevations, only minimal physical work can be performed because of physiological changes. Vigorous activity during ascent or within the first 24 hrs after ascent will increase both the incidence and severity of AMS symptoms. Acclimatization to height varies much more among individuals than that for heat. Some people adjust very easily others cannot get above 10K ft. The process of adjustment continues for weeks or months. Both acclimatization and the onset of altitude sickness take time, generally from 6-48 hrs to occur. So, visiting a high altitude for a few hours will not necessarily predict what will happen once one spends the night at that altitude. No reliable screening methods exist to determine who will be a good acclimatizer or not. History is best indicator. The ease with which someone can acclimatize is fairly consistent from trip to trip. For example, someone who dose well on a ski patrol at 10K ft. will not necessary do well if he or she flies to 10K ft. and spends the night. However, someone who has flown to 10K ft. in the past and done well will likely do well the next time. Someone who flew to 10K ft. and woke up with a headache the next day will probably have the same result the next time, and maybe a candidate for acetazolamide prophylaxis (see medic for medication advice). Acclimatization seems to have lots to due with genetics. Indigenous people can adjust to living at 18k’ for long periods of time and can make short visits to 28k’ with out sickness. These physiological changes i.e. adaptations are pronounced among mountain people who have lived in cold, high altitudes for generations. Compared to lowlanders, their bodies are short, squat, stocky, and barrel-chested, and their hands and feet are stubby. Their hearts are bigger and slower beating and their capillaries are wider. Their bodies contain 20 % more red blood cells (and hemoglobin in the blood) than lowlanders' do and these red blood cells are larger. The alveoli in their lungs are more open for oxygen absorption. Many develop a fatty epithelial pouch around the eyes to counteract cataract and snow blindness. They also consider 20/15 vision the bench mark for best vision where 20/20 is considered best vision in a modern western orientated population were much less time is spent out doors, exercising eye muscles.

The altitude at which complete acclimatization is possible is not a set point but for most (with proper ascent, nutrition and physical activity) it is about 14K ft. Despite all training and efforts, acclimatization is not possible at heights over 18K ft. (5418 meters) in fact attempts to acclimatize beyond 17K ft. results in a degradation of the body greater than the benefits gained. Thus exposure at these heights must be limited and closely supervised i.e. Marines at high altitudes need to be rotated out every 10 to 14 days. The indigenous populations can out-perform even the most acclimatized and physically fit Marine. The expectation that freshly deployed, unacclimatized troops can go immediately into action is unrealistic. Troops can acclimatize by appropriate staging techniques. Exposure should be conducted at progressively higher altitudes, starting at about 8K’ and ending at 14K’(no more than an additional 300 meters per day above 3,000 meters) is also a general rule. The Indian army acclimates its troops over a 14-day schedule with increases in altitude at 6 days, 4 days and then another 4 days.
Other rules of thumb to consider; if the change in elevation is large and abrupt AMS may begin at 8K ft. 10 to 20 % who ascend rapidly (in less than 24 hours) to altitudes up to 6K ft. Non-acclimatized can lose up to 50 % of their normal physical efficiency. Rapid ascent to elevations of 10K’ causes mild symptoms in 50 %, 12K’ to 14K’ will result in moderate symptoms in over 75 % and 12 to 18 % may have severe symptoms. Rapid ascent to 17,500’ causes severe, incapacitating symptoms in almost all individuals. Understanding acclimatization with a concept known as the "acclimatization line." A unit’s Marines standing at sea level would each have a hypothetical line of around 9K ft. below which they will feel fine, and above which they would experience symptoms of altitude illness. The height of this acclimatization line would vary genetically with each Marine. If a Marine ascends to altitude, but stays below the acclimatization line, there will be no symptoms, and the process of acclimatization can take place. After a night at 9K ft. one’s acclimatization line will rise, perhaps to 11K ft. If one moves up the next day to 11,300 ft. one would remain asymptomatic and continue to acclimatize. However, if the Marine moves up to 11,800 ft. symptoms of AMS would ensue. It appears that if one’s symptoms begin to occur very near to the acclimatization line, the body can continue to adjust, and a day’s rest at the same height will result in resolution of symptoms. If the symptoms at 11,800 ft. are ignored however, and the Marine moves up another 1500 ft. or so, the symptoms will continue to worsen and further adaptation will not take place. It is then necessary to get below the point where the symptoms began in order to start seeing improvement. This last point illustrates why it is so dangerous to ascend with any symptoms of altitude illness.

Acclimatization to temperatures;

Recognition of heat illnesses at higher altitudes may not be as apparent as at lower altitudes, because sweat evaporates very quickly. Measures to avoid dehydration and salt loss are extremely important. The risk of sunburn, particularly to the uncovered face, is greater in mountains than on the desert floor due to thinner atmosphere. Troops who have been sweating heavily before the temperature starts to drop, should take their wet shirts off and place them over relatively dry shirts and sweaters. This may have to be leader supervised and disciplined in the same manner as water consumption. Daily temperature variations make layering of clothing essential.
Basic Principles of Keeping Warm
Remember C-O-L-D to keep warm in winter.
Keep clothing Clean.
Avoid Overheating.
Wear Clothing Loose and in Layers.
Keep clothing Dry
Heat Production
The body's three main physiological means for producing heat are metabolism, exercise, and shivering.
Metabolism; Biochemical reactions which keep us alive produce heat as a by-product. Our basal metabolic rate is a constant internal furnace. When we are exposed to cold, for long periods, metabolism by itself does not produce enough heat to satisfy our body's entire heat requirements.
Exercise; muscles, which make up 50 % of our body weight, produce most of our heat during work. Short bursts of vigorous, physical effort generate heat. Moderate levels of exercise can be sustained for longer periods, there are limitations, however. Physical conditioning, strength, stamina, and fuel in the form of food and water are necessary to sustain activity.
Shivering; is a random, quivering of our muscles. It produces heat at a rate five times greater than our basal metabolic rate. It is our first defense against cold. Shivering occurs when temperature receptors in the skin and brain sense a decrease in body temperature and trigger the shivering response. As with work and exercise, the price of shivering is fuel. How long and how effectively we shiver is limited by the amount of carbohydrates stored in muscles and by the amount of water and oxygen available.
Heat Loss; There are five mechanisms by which our bodies lose heat. Note recall RRCCE pronounced R-see.
Respiration cools the body. As a Marine breathes in cold dry air, it is warmed and humidified in the lungs. As it is exhaled, as much as 25 percent of the body's heat can be lost. Placing a wool scarf or mask over the mouth and nose warms inhaled air and assists in keeping the body warm. NOTE A/c breather to cool the body?
Radiation is the emission of heat energy in the form of particles or waves. Energy is emitted by one body, transmitted through an intervening medium, and absorbed by another body. Infrared, or heat radiation, is transferred from a relatively hot to a relatively cold object. In winter, we lose heat to the environment through radiation. We receive radiative heat from the sun, fires, and reflections off snow, water or light-colored rocks.
When exposed to the environment, the skin serves as a radiator. Unlike the rest of the body, the blood vessels in the head (feet and hands?) do not constrict and reduce the blood supply flowing to the scalp. The head is, therefore, an excellent radiator of heat, eliminating from 35 to 50 % of our total heat production. In cold weather operations, dry insulation, especially on the head, is essential in minimizing heat loss. Hence the primary means of heat loss is through the skin.
Conduction; is the transfer of heat through direct contact between a relatively hot and a relatively cold object. Heat moves from the warmer to the colder object. We lose heat when we lie on snow, ice, and cold or wet frozen ground or sit or lean against floors and bulkheads in unheated interiors of vehicles. (Bird chicken bones and feathers to cool the body)
Convection; is the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of relatively colder ambient environment (air or water) around the body.
Evaporation; is heat loss in the form of vapor. Heat is necessary for the evaporation of perspiration from the skin's surface. Evaporative heat loss accounts for 20 % of the body's normal total heat loss. When we become overheated through physical exertion, evaporation becomes our major mechanism for heat loss. Sweating accounts for roughly two thirds of our evaporative heat loss; the remaining one third is lost through breathing.

Note on dehydration; the tissues in the lungs are wet and warm. They have to be in order to work. No liquid there, no breathing. It's as simple as that. Cold air can still hold moisture, but not a whole lot. The amount of water vapor that can be held in the air decreases with temperature decrease. That means when you take a parcel of air and warm it up, it's capacity to hold moisture increases. It actually doubles for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature. The Relative Humidity greatly affects the rate of evaporation. Relative Humidity is defined as "The amount of water vapor an air mass can hold compared to the amount of water vapor it is currently holding." So a relative humidity of 80% means the air is holding 80% of the water that it can hold. Let's now look at what happens to the cold outside air as it enters the lungs. When you breathe in cold air, its capacity to hold moisture increases dramatically as it warms up. Air that went in at a relative humidity of 80% at freezing may now have a RH of 10% which means it can now hold 70% more water than when it came in to the lungs. The air draws the water out of your lung tissue like it or not. This dries out the inside of your lungs and your body replaces the moisture as fast as it can. This means you now have to drink more water to keep up with the loss. It is way too easy to dehydrate in the winter. Co-incidentally, when you breathe out again, the air cools off and looses its ability to hold moisture, reaches 100% RH and forms a cloud.
Eating snow to replace the water lost by breathing and working can be dangerous. When the snow melts in your mouth, it cools off the body. Ever eat ice cream to cool off on a hot day? Same thing happens in the winter. If you're shivering, (first stage of hypothermia) eating snow will cool you off even more and make the situation worse. However, if you're starting to overheat, by all means, go ahead and eat clean snow. It will cool you off and solve the pesky overheating problem.

Other medical concerns;
UV eye protective goggles should be used when the sun is shining through fog or clouds; a bright, cloudy day is deceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyes as a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglasses are worn to shade the eyes from the rays of the sun that are reflected by the snow. Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in that a deep burn may be received before discomfort is felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglasses must be used from the start of exposure. Waiting for the appearance of discomfort is too late. The condition heals in a few days without permanent damage once unprotected exposure to sunlight is stopped. The risk of snow blindness is increased at high altitudes because the clear air allows more sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. If sunglasses are lost or broken, a substitute can be improvised by cutting thin (IMO 1/16 inch) by 3 cm (l") long slits through a scrap of wood or cardboard approximately 15 cm (6") long and 3 cm (1") wide. (This works because the suns rays are vertical vs. horizontal slit of Eskimo goggles).
Everyone well experience an impairment of night vision and constriction in peripheral vision (up to 30 % at 6K’). Personnel who have had radial keratotomy corrective eye surgery should not go to high altitudes because their vision may permanently cloud.

Superficial bullet and shrapnel wounds can quickly turn fatal at altitude. Soviet experience in the mountains of Afghanistan proved that 13 to 15 men might be involved in carrying one patient. Exertion at altitude is difficult and the stretcher party has to provide its own security as well. Patients cannot be effectively treated at altitude, but have to be evacuated to lower altitudes to survive.

General combat tips

Employment of the local population is most advantageous. Units will make more use of local populations, for intelligence about terrain and weather. Aircraft well be used more for weather, recon, and messages. Aerial photos oblique as well as vertical must be studied. In winter, short hours of daylight, fog, snowfall, blizzards, whiteouts, and drifting snow, especially above tree line, drastically limit visibility. At times, an overcast sky and snow-covered terrain create a phenomenon called flat light, which makes recognition of irregularities in the terrain extremely difficult. Heavy snow can change topography making rally points difficult to recognize, shadows and dark objects appear darker than usual. Snow and ice on crest blasted by the winds will be sculptured into odd- shaped drifts. It is relatively easier to conceal troops in barren mountains than on the desert floor due to rugged ground, deep shadows (especially at dawn and dusk), and the difficulties an observer encounters when establishing perspective. (Sinai) With barren mountains, the normal type camouflage net, which breaks up outline by shadow, maybe used rather than the overall cover normally used in the desert. NOTE one Marine moving out from under netting carrying tether rope for extension netting. Rope shot out in front of patrol over a tree branch or some anchor to secure rope to be used to string netting across route. Carefully placed rocks can be used to hide equipment, however rocks well chip and splinter under small arms fire.

Keep in mind Marines must be in peak physical condition. And will require additional stimuli and energy. Calorie intake of up to 6K calories per day. Short, wiry Marines are preferred to tall, muscular Marines. Those selected should have above-average intelligence to allow them to more-readily adapt to the trying terrain. Even the physically fit Marine experiences physiological and psychological degradation when at high elevations. During the first few days at high altitude, leaders have extreme difficulty in maintaining a coordinated unit.

Air transportation may be limited by scarcity of landing sites. Marines delivered by helicopters are less fatigued for fighting. Helicopters are inhibited by altitude and rugged terrain. Payloads and endurance are degraded due to thin air at attitude. Winds are turbulent with considerable fluctuations in air flow strength and direction, particularly on the lee side of mountains. These winds, combined with the terrain, produce extra strain on crews as they have little margin for error. Air assaults from 8K-10K ft. are best conducted by the CH-47. Helicopters providing excellent mobility but no surprise. NOTE pilots oxygen required? Fuel tanks are completely filled with the correct fuel and oil mixture to eliminate condensation. Pilots should never follow a predictable route, including rivers, canyons, streets or roads, for any length of time. Keep intervals of at least 500 yards so all aircraft are free to maneuver and fire guns. Avoid ground lights at night even a trash barrel fire can illuminate the rotors. If aircraft not available, reserves may have to be split up and placed behind key terrain, immediately available. Infantry must seek restrictive terrain to naturalize an enemy's mounted or air mobility advantage. If retrograde (moving backwards) operations are necessary, mountainous terrain is as good a place to conduct them as anywhere. More time is required to reconnoiter and prepare rearward positions. Unlike the desert floor where movement between positions is likely to cover relatively great distances, movement in these conditions is usually from ridge to ridge. Routes must be covered by flank guards, especially at defiles.

Terrain and weather gives battle a piece meal character. There are few approach routes and most of those are along valleys, which are covered by air defense and infantry forces using massed fire. Mountains restrict effective bombing and strafing by jet aircraft.
Time and space factors are extremely fluid. Varying sharply in response to weather and altitude, distance is measured in terms of time and energy. Distance between two points is as much vertical as horizontal. Up hill very slow, down hill can be very fast. This can be important with calculating return tip. More time required for Medical evacuations and all phases of operations. Extreme northern latitudes/Tundra terrain permits unrestricted maneuvers.
Patrols are used extensively to harass the enemy and prevent infiltration. With both environments, it is common to have small units widely dispersed, operating at great distances from other small units or there Command organizations. Requires extra radios, radars/sensors for the numerous OPs or LPs and other positions. Decentralization leads to poor control, more of a problem for offence.
In extreme north, tundra or mountains objectives should be limited, operations are conducted for specific goals, and this is true for Desert ops too. Strong points are easy to isolate and are buy passed more. Key objectives dominate terrain; vantage points for artillery and observation are a must.

Assaults; raid basics apply i.e. normally incorporate an assault element, a security element and a fire support element.
Modifying the TOE of units is likely. Example, an antitank platoon may not be necessary. The mobility, versatility in weapons and the self sufficient nature of the infantry unit, means they well do most of the fighting. In mountain, warfare (MT) mass is not as important as speed, where numbers are often a con, along with road bound vehicles. As a rule of thumb skies are left in a pre-assault position, as close combat on foot is easier to execute. Conversely deep snow may force unit to close on objective on skies. You can advance or retreat with fogs on MT. slopes, attack right behind storms. During blizzards or blowing snow the attacker should if possible keep 3200 mils, 180 degree arch to enemy unit’s stern or flank. Attack out of sun. Units well conduct more Night operations, the best opportunities are at night or during very poor visibility. Day time mostly spent in defense on reverse slopes. In extreme northern latitudes there are lots of flanking and frontal attacks on broad fronts. MT. Flank attacks on foot take a lot of time. Frontal attacks in day light through narrow sectors have little chance. MT. particularly well suited for surprise ambushes lots of cover. Under favorable circumstances, the enemy can only see as far as 100 yards into open woods. (Note capabilities of sensors at angles to forest while in flight). In woods, Marines can be equipped with armor piercing ammo. Unnecessary vertical foot or vehicle movement should be avoided. Do not easily i.e. readily give up elevation gained. Make every effort to secure ground higher than enemy positions to allow the attack to be downhill. It may be possible to infiltrate to a position behind the enemy, preferably using the most difficult and hence unlikely route. Although this is very slow, it normally has the advantage of surprise. Positions in the enemy's stern might provide opportunity to kill the enemy as they reposition for or during their counterattack. The importance of dominate terrain, together with the enemy's knowledge that troops on the objective will be physically tired and dehydrated, makes an immediate counterattack lucrative. Reserves should be kept centrally located and or deployed by air to block or counterattack.

Weapons employment;

Field artillery observation posts are emplaced on the highest ground available, although in low-cloud conditions it will be necessary to ensure that they are staggered in height. Predicting fire (i.e. firing tables) may be inaccurate due to rapidly changing weather conditions also making observed fire the best method. It may be difficult to find good gun positions at lower altitudes due to crest clearance problems so high-angle fire is often used. Artillery positions should be on reverse slopes and as close to the crest as possible-considering crest clearance and flash-cover. Individual guns should be sited in terrain folds and other places where they are naturally concealed. Artillery cannot be readily moved where there are not roads. Artillery positions are usually located where ammunition can be delivered-in valleys, villages, and near road heads.  Mortars are frequently more effective than guns or howitzers (due to high-angle fire). They are easier to shift around, can better engage reverse slopes and can be moved closer to the forward posts. In general, the best weapons are light artillery and mortars that are air mobile and can be manhandled so they can be positioned as high as possible. There is limited use for self-propelled weapons, although they may be used in valleys. It’s difficult to provide cover fire, especially for troops attacking down hill on reverse slopes. (See note in Defense section, over all tips, under reverse slopes). With snow and soft ground the effects of supporting fires over all is lessened.

Mobility;
Because of difficulty in re-supply, the supply points will become especially lucrative targets. Bridges tunnels and passes are very important.

Because of the frequent interdiction's of mountain roadways, military police are used to expedite traffic movement to the front. More engineer troops are needed, major tasks for engineers; Assist in selection, construction, improvement, and route repair, bridging or drainage to counter the problem of flash flooding and the denial of all to the enemy. De-mining is important due to the limited number of routes.

Vehicles;
Wheeled-vehicle transportation (trucks, mules, snowmobiles) should be employed as far forward as possible.
In Afghanistan, Canadian Army used small unit support vehicles (SUSV) i.e. quad runners to move over the terrain at high-altitude, allowing the infantry to ride or transport their loads into battle. These vehicles afforded some small arms protection.
Trucks, helicopters, mechanical mules, and snowmobiles (snow mobiles are capable of climbing 40 degree slopes) are key to mountain logistics, but above 13K ft. the logistics effort shifts to the backs of mules and porters.
Gasoline-powered trucks are clearly preferred over diesel. As the truck ascends the amount of oxygen available is reduced and the engine efficiency drops off. Cross-country and climbing capability decline as fuel usage soars. Gasoline engines may need their carburetors adjusted and Diesels may need to be fitted with turbochargers. In the mountains on average, vehicles lose 20 to 25 % of their rated carrying capability (i.e. vehicle engines lose 10-20 % of the horse power at 7k’, gas dose better) and can use up to 75 % more fuel. Military generators and vehicles are often diesel-powered, but standard diesel engines lose efficiency at 10K ft. and eventually stop functioning altogether because of insufficient oxygen.

Average increase in fuel consumption at altitude; (keep in mind head winds can increase consumption by 10%). Figures are for the number of gallons used per 100 km.
Conditions; with good maintenance, good roads.
Low Altitude (below 3km); 3 to 5% slope light vehicles (gas) average load uses 16 gallons. Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 25 gallons, unloaded 20 gallons.
Low Altitude; 6 to 8% slope light Vehicles (gas) average load uses 17 gallons. Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 30 gallons, unloaded 25 gallons.
Medium Altitude (up to 3km) ; 3 to 5% slope light vehicles (gas) average load 17 gallons, Trucks 3 to 5 tons (diesel) loaded 30 gallons, unloaded 25 gallons.
Medium Altitude; 6 to 8% lt veh. Avg. 18, Trucks loaded 32 gals. Unloaded 27 gals.
High Altitude (3km to 4km); 3 to 5% slope, lt. veh. 18 gals. Trucks loaded 32 gals. Unloaded 27 gals.   
High Altitude; 6 to 8% slope lt. veh. 20 gals. Trucks loaded 35 gals. Unloaded 30 gals.
High Altitude; (above 4km) 3 to 5% slope lt. veh. 20 gals. Truck loaded 35 gals. Unloaded 30 gals.
High Altitude; 6 to 8% slope lt. veh. 25 gals. Truck loaded 38 gals. Unloaded 33 gals.

Animals and porters;
Beyond the limits of wheeled transport, the only alternatives are animals or porters (which may need to be acclimatized). Many ungulate (having hoofs) species are traditional pack animals, including elephants, camels, the yak, reindeer, goats, water buffalo, llama, Alpacas and mules used to pack loads on the back, pull wagons, and or some could be ridden. Camels can smell humans 4 miles away and see them 2 miles away. Camels in Arabia can brink 50 gallons of water. The Bactrian Camel most eat snow (this in Mongolia) limiting its self to two gallons a day to prevent to much cooling of the body. Oxen can be slaughtered and eaten when meat is low and wild game impossible to find or tactical situation prevents hunting (horsemeat is eatable but tuff). Mules have more stamina and are more sure-footed than horses and have more resistance to disease. Summed up by George Washington; "Horses eat too much, work too little, and die too young." However, mules are subject to colic, heat exhaustion, injuries, and wounds. Most injuries and wounds result from poorly adjusted saddles, pack frames and harnesses. Stones, rocks, and debris on the trail can also wound a mule's hoof. Local mules are more immune to disease at altitude than humans and all mules have a keen sense of self-preservation that keeps them alive in mountain storms. Mules require a great deal of daily care and training. Muleteers, farriers, blacksmiths, and large animal veterinarians, who have been absent from many armies for decades, are essential for mule-borne logistics. Mules need new shoes every 30 days and there are special mule shoes for snow and ice.

Mules; are 12 to 17.5 hands (50 to 70 inches in height and weigh 600 to 1,500 lbs. The average donkey stands about 40 inches in height at the shoulders, but breeds range from 24 to 66 inches. Mule’s travel at 2½ mph. Oxen are slower, at 2 m.p.h. The ½-mile faster speed can save a week or more over long distances. Oxen can graze along the trail, but mules must be fed grain to supplement the grazing. American mules require 10 lbs of grain and 14 pounds of hay per day, which also becomes part of the logistics load therefore, less paying/combat freight can be hauled. The smaller mules of Argentina require 8 lbs of grain and 8 lbs of hay per day. Mules could go 24 hrs without water when they had a light load i.e. under 300 lbs. Mules can consume 25 to 30 liters of water a day and up to 50 liters in desert terrain. They also require a daily ounce of salt.
In WWI or II the standard army mule load was about 150 lbs. American mules can carry up to 20 % of their body weight (150-300 pounds) for 15 to 20 miles per day in mountains. Smaller mules in other locales will carry less. The maximum carrying weight for an Argentine mule is between 200 and 250 lbs. However, this is for low- and medium-altitudes. At high altitude, the maximum carrying weight drops below 200 lbs. Like humans, mules require time to acclimate to altitude. Muleteers and mules require about a month's training to get them ready to work above 3,000 meters. Like humans, mules tire easily above 4,000 meters and need to be rested frequently. Mules also have to be trained not to fear the noise of firearms and explosives so that they do not run off during a patrol.

Organized mule cargo units, rather than ad hoc teams led by local teamsters, are the preferred option, but local mules are always preferred over deployed mules. Equipage is a horse drawn carriage usually with its attendant servants. Since much of the material will be kept in dumps and moved in stages, the commander has to keep his transport requirements in hand. Energy conservation requires additional routines to deploy the logistics (like rations to the platoon, mortar rounds to the mortars).
General load information to consider;
Requirements for Infantry Company (180) planning a mountain march, attack and defense lasting for a total of 6 days. Note these figures do not include supplies carried by each Marine. Rations 1620 kilos, water (drink and cocking) 2,262 kilos (2565 liters). Ammunition 1,021 kilos.
Small mules carry 80 kilos, big mules up to 150 kilos.
Mule total 60 – 80. mules to carry 5,620 kilos of fodder, 4060 kilos of grain, 348 kilos of salt, and 18,416 kilos of water.
Consumption of water and wood; low and medium altitudes, man drinking 1.5 to 2 liters, cocking 5 liters. Animal summer 15 liters winter 10 liters. High altitude man drinking 2 to 2.5 liters, cocking 8 liters. Animals summer 15 liters, winter 10 liters.
Wood cocking uncovered at low altitude, 1kg per man, same for heating tent or shelter and in open.
Wood cocking uncovered at high attitude, 1kg per Marine, heating tent or shelter 1kg per Marine every 6 hours, in open 1kg per Marine every two hours. 

Porters; Mules cannot reach the higher elevations, and porters must haul the supplies forward. Although a porter cannot carry as much as a mule, they can move in places where mules cannot. However, porters will probably be reluctant to work too far away from their homes and villages. There is always a security consideration when using local porters. Short, wiry porter are preferred to tall, muscular porters. Selected porters should have above-average intelligence to allow them to more-readily adapt to the trying terrain.
Cargo capabilities; on foot up to 3kms Porter 20kg at 3-4km 20kg above 4km 15kg or less.
Marines up to 3km 15kg 3-3km 10-12kg above 4km 8-12kg.
On skis up to 3km porter 20kg 3-4km 12-15kg above 4km 12kg or less. Marine up to 3km 12kg 3-4km 12kg above 4km 10kg or less.
Physical performance; starts to be affected at about 1,000 meters altitude; the effect is not linear and the drop in performance is quite different for acclimated versus unacclimated individuals. A runner who is not acclimated will lose 10 to 12% in VO2max at an altitude of about 6,500 feet and 12 to 15% at 7,500 feet. However, performance will not be to the same degree because running economy is better at altitude (due to the less dense air resistance). Research at 6,500 feet indicated a 12% loss of VO2max, but 6% improvement in running economy resulting in 6% loss in performance. The duration of a run is also a factor. An 800-meter run is so anaerobic that little performance difference exists. A 1,500-meter run may be 6 to 10 seconds slower, but over 20 seconds slower for unacclimated runners. An unacclimated runner could expect to lose a minute in 5K and as much as two minutes for a 10K. Average for a 5k run 13 min. 10k run 27 minutes.

Characteristics of military operations in Jungle warfare:

Panic and phobias are magnified, fratricide dangers are high. During the night there are many more natural noises. Ambushes are used extensively they are multi-phase operations and are planned in some detail. First a suitable killing zone (K.Z.) is identified. It is a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and gives cover for the deployment then waiting and execution then extraction phases. The patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness, and will need to leave the area as soon as practical by a pre-determined route. Usually, two or more S.E. will be sent out a short distance from the K.Z. Their job is two fold; one to give early-warning of approaching enemy, and secondly, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemy from escaping. Having set the ambush, the next phase is to wait. Executing an ambush, initiate it with an explosive device (such as a claymore mine). Note most crew serve MGs with open bolts give warning of opening fire. Afterwards clear the K.Z. by checking bodies for intelligence. Attacking troops in a thicket. First post Marines at corners. Machine gun small sections. Adjust/shift Marines and fire etc. In the jungle you must operate with combatant units at close ranges and possibly in all directions. It’s almost always best to be in line/column formations. When in doubt don’t shoot. Helicopters provide excellent mobility but no surprise. Inspect foliage closely, broken leaves, twigs, etc., often indicate when and in what direction the enemy has passed and how many were in the group. The amount of sap oozing from a broken limb can indicate time of passing. The steep hills and the dense vegetation and swamps tend to ‘canalize’ our advance. It is next to impossible to have flank security patrolling abreast of a moving column. It is difficult to send units more than a hundred feet to a flank and maintain contact with them. If we try to make any headway we have to risk exposed flanks. Patrols tend to try to reach objectives too quickly, moving too rapidly i.e. nosily through the brush. Maneuver option, a base of fire should be advanced along the ridges. “When encountering enemy on the move, our units had more success and suffered fewer casualties by opening fire and rushing through, than by trying to take cover and envelope the enemy. Grenades are more useful than rifles in patrol work. Any equipment which must be abandoned should be buried and camouflaged. Rifles can be kept perfectly dry at night by placing them on sticks, several inches off the ground and covering them with banana leaves. “It is noteworthy that in the defense, each unit, even the squad established itself so as to provide all around security during darkness. With positions make use of varying elevations. “In organizing the area defense all automatic weapons were sighted on sectors of fire coordinated with adjacent units. However, it was a standing rule that weapons never be fired at night, except to repulse a major night attack. In order to safeguard personnel and to avoid disclosing the position of automatic weapons, only knives and bayonets were used to take out small infiltrating parties. To guard against attacks after dark, we would set up the machine gun at one place, and then immediately after dark the gun would be moved to another prepared location. It was required that every telephone/radio be manned continuously from dark to daylight, eliminating the necessity of ringing. Therefore, whenever anything occurred, all leaders within the position instantly knew the situation.”

V/C not yelling at all when wounded or dying. Me what about Tali ban, or most any other foreigners?

Medivacs; total 406 thousand patients including 168 thousand combat casualties. Between 65-73 high velocity round effect i.e. wound track, tissue damage to organs and blood vessels too. And explosion victims with large fragments and very dirty wounds meant the victim was close to explosion.

Causalities Vietnam, small arms 51% of KIAs, 16% of WIA. Fragments 36% KIA, 65% WIA. Booby traps/mines 11% KIA = 4000, 15% WIA. Punji stakes only 2 % WIA. Others cause 2% KIA, 2% WIA.

WWII small arms 32 % and Korea 33%.

Vietnam, impact points of rounds on body; KIA, 16% muti-sites, 1% arms , 7% legs, 18% growing /abs, 19% upper torso , 39% head. WIA 20% multi site, arms 36%, legs, 5% groin, 7% upper torso, 14% head.

I don’t know the timeliness of the fallowing info I checked the site last mouth, OEF 175 KIA by small arms fire, total of both wars 1373 with 257 US Marines. This according to icasualties.com.


Fighting at night,

Night ops, radios are turned down. Make use of ear phones if available. Note in MT or cold weather warfare of WWII “fighting for the little kingdoms”/fighting holes, to retreat into the country side meant death by exposure. Close in night fighting combatants have instinctive tendency to form groups under low light conditions. You should move more frequently, farther and faster at night especially after contact with foe. Silence voice wise will make foe nervous, cause foe to shoot more. Muzzle flashes will give away locations, that’s were you though grenades, or attack with bayonets. Use extreme caution when throwing in thick brush or up hill. Throwing rocks at foe (especially down hill) as rouse grenade attack, the 3rd time you use real grenade.

Knife fighting, Romans taught to thrust not slash. With swords/knifes slashes with the edge, though made with ever so much force seldom kill. As vital parts are defended by armor and bone. On the contrary a stab although it may only penetrate 2” is generally fatal. Besides with the attitude of striking, it is impossible to avoid exposing the right arm and side of the body, which is covered during a thrust. With thrust a foe receives the point before sword is seen. It must be observed that when engaging with spears/javelins/grenades, the left foot is advanced increasing throwing force. On contrary at close range with sword, right foot extended so that the body may present less a target to foe and right arm be ready to thrust with max force and reach and to counter enemy that may have broken line gotten behind you. Stabbing; blades edge held horizontal to ground (i.e. parallel) well penetrate between ribs. Stabbing heart via stomach less blood is spilt. Also arm pits location of vital arteries. Stabbing Pelvis hands width below navel, just above genitals. Axon (base of the back of head) also at end of spinal column just above buttocks. Slicing throat, tip of blade used just to one side of trachea. So the trachea is not cut, which would allow blood to inter airway and cause load gurgling sound.

Note 2/07/11 end of transferred text i.e. corrected my reasoning is due to fact there is so much here that is not yet decided on it really dose not make much difference.
Characteristics of military operations in Desert warfare
Illumination or smoke rounds can be used to reorient maneuvering forces. 1/29/11 LOL what happened here was that I used all my Desert warfare notes in other places i.e. they just fit right in other locations.I have now added the below material down to Armor, I've highlighted in yellow because it is raw notes not organized.

Distances require longer lead times for reconnaissance and surveillance planning. Effective reconnaissance takes time.
Scouts are reconnaissance patrols, not combat patrols, and should attempt to gain information through stealth.
Consideration should be given to conducting reconnaissance during periods of limited visibility.
Very few civilians are encountered in desert operations, and information they give should be treated with caution.

Because there is little vegetation in the desert, strong shadows are readily observed from the air. Disrupt shadows by altering the shape of equipment, using the correct angle to the sun to minimize shadow size and to cause shadows to fall on broken ground or vegetation whenever possible.

Open terrain and predominantly clear atmosphere generally offer excellent long-range visibility, but at certain times of the day it may be limited or distorted by the effects of heat.
The ideal observation should have the sun behind it and be as high as possible to lessen the effects of mirages and heat radiation from the ground.
Stake out your target line/engagement area (trigger point). This will prevent soldiers from engaging targets beyond the maximum effective range of the weapon system.
Observation of fires may be difficult. The lack of visible terrain features distorts the ability to make range estimations.
When preparing defensive positions, use every available means to know how far you can observe in front of your positions.
The enemy can see just as far as you can. Inspect your position from an enemy point of view.
Light and noise at night may be seen or heard from miles away, so strict light and noise discipline are necessary.
Sand and dust reveal movement in the desert. It is best to move at night. This includes resupply as well as tactical movements.
There are fewer terrain features in the desert. This hinders navigation and exposes friendly forces to the enemy. Take advantage of the least considered features, such as wadis, to conceal movement.
The enemy will try to attack with the sun low and behind him in an attempt to dazzle the defender.
When natural obstacles are not available, units should use linear obstacles to stop enemy movement. Minefields must be rapidly laid over large areas to be effective. The enemy will try to attack with the sun low and behind him in an attempt to dazzle the defender. Employ “basic loads” of Class IV (sand bags, pickets, etc.) with all vehicles to expedite digging in. In the desert environment, camouflage and dispersion are a necessity for all forces. Employ reverse slopes as much as possible and camouflage frontal parapets for individual/crew positions. This avoids obvious bunker positions being easily seen and destroyed by direct fire. Extended depth and dispersion of vehicles will enhance chances of survival. Armored vehicles survive longer when dug in. Use of dummy positions can conceal operational plans to deceive the enemy as to the real location of potential targets, such as fighting positions or trains areas. Air instability is most likely to cause quick, vertical, and irregular dissipation of an agent, leaving the target area relatively free of contamination quickly. Chemical weapons used during the heat of day are normally persistent nerve or blister agents.

COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT 

Medical support in the desert environment is challenged by remote locations.
In a nonlinear desert defense, enemy and friendly units may be intermingled, especially in poor visibility.
Medical treatment and evacuation will become more critical in the desert. The effectiveness of the combat lifesaver program has been proven.
Medics must constantly re-certify and train those who are designated as combat lifesavers. The standard should be at least one lifesaver per squad.
Rehearse how your unit will identify, treat, and evacuate casualties. This is as important as how you will fight.
When not in use, keep weapons covered. Even though weapons are covered, they may still have sand on them. Clean the weapon frequently so it will be ready when needed.
PMCS in the desert is absolutely essential. Left unattended, sand and wind will rapidly destroy the most basic piece of soldier gear.
Sand clogs fuel lines and wears out tires and other rubber and plastic parts faster. It also seeps into engines and cooling systems. This results in overheated engines that can cause sudden and catastrophic failure.
Food service organizations require intense supervision. Current menus must be augmented with fresh fruit, vegetables, and breads to provide soldiers the roughage and nutrients they need.

COMMAND AND CONTROL

Desert evenings can be extremely long or short. Leaders should be concerned with EENT, BMNT, and percentage of illumination. These factors will be extremely important when conducting night operations.

Dry desert conditions can, at times, reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, even in aircraft operating nap of the earth.

FM communications may be degraded due to dead spots caused by heavy concentrations of minerals close to the surface. Establish firm procedures for constant control, either by radio or through liaison.

Ensure that all know the commander's intent and rehearse battle drill so that actions are understood even in the absence of orders.


Armor

Threat attacks are based on two principles, speed and mass. Air land battle doctrine four basic tenets of initiative agility, synchronization and depth are constant. A heavy mechanized unit usually plans to win by sustaining a high rate of advance 20 mph i.e. 2-3 minutes per km. Generally 60 miles of range equal 3-5 hour’s time. Egyptian chariot speed 25 mph equal to modern tank. Note house power wt ratio hp divided by vehicle wt. Higher Hp. makes for move lively vehicle more important for acceleration and moving up hill, than for pure speed. Tracked vehicles on flat road surface will slide around corners like auto. Heavier vehicles more stable same as Cadillac vs. compact. Because APCs are lighter they can’t move across open ground as fast with out injuring Marines in side.
Tracked vehicles better two negotiate obstacles in MOUT, also do better off road, wheeled vehicles get stuck.

Over 60 tons tank becomes handicapped, lots of bridges cannot be used. Most tanks barely float if equipped to due so and cannot manage rough water.
MT drivers and crew passengers of open vehicles are very venerable to cold injuries. MOUT Dusts wares out pistons. Dust, rough handling character, places great strain on drives, communication equipment and night vision equipment. Vehicles use less fuel in MOUT than open. In open terrain vehicles that run out of fuel can be recovered later. Noise reduction with ear plugs etc. more important with tracked vehicles, over time adds to fatigue.
USSR wider tracked vehicle did better in mud. Vehicle used more fuel. Over all operationally 20% on road,40% off road, 40% stationary, engine running this well very with season more time off road summer when ground is dry and firm less when hot ( air con- no) cold snow or muddy more time for heater benefit.

Tank drivers main job keep tank covered/concealed, don’t move strait out of hull down position.
Narrow street were only one tank can proceed should be avoided.
Bridges and other prominent features may have indirect fire sighted on them.

The factors of cover, concealment, fields of fire, etc. considered in selecting other defensive positions are also applicable when selecting positions for combat vehicles. Utilizing any physical barrier available, such as low walls or piled-up rubble, brush or locating it within a building to gain additional cover and concealment. Tank and APC positions can be classified in general terms as hull-down or hide positions. Hull-down positions are dug in, to protect the vehicle by reducing its silhouette. Hide positions, as the name implies, deny the enemy direct observation of a tank or APC.
Maneuver unit at disadvantage do to lack of concealment. Tanks need only move 50-100’ to find ground cover, undulations. Tanks average 300 feet apart.

Ideally tank support infantry the exception is when combat is on flat open ground. In open terrain you are more likely to be attacked by horses/vehicles/helicopters than by infantry.
Featureless terrain troops in front of tanks to provide better information to tanks.
If cavalry is not strong enough to compete with foes inter mix it with infantry. Cavalry and infantry the later is more important to analyze.
For a last ditch direct assault dismount infantry first, to limit casualties. Dismounted infantry checking routes should clear high ground first. Make sure your forward infantry can be covered by tank crew behind you.
If infantry dose not fallow armored units within reasonable time, a section should be sent back to investigate. Tanks that get separated from infantry can not fire at bypassed enemy. In turning to withdrawal all tanks should turn about as right face to limit confusion as to the danger zones for infantry.
"We have saved our wire crews much work by carrying on each vehicle two poles with hooks on the ends so that we can quickly lift field-wire lines and run under them." After withdrawal paths closed with wire to prevent easy use for travel. No fighting positions are placed in tanks path that were made during assault.


Troops operating with tanks beware of debris from APDS rounds. 60 degrees ark during firing danger zone for APDS. Gun muzzle blast in MOUT can last 1-2 minutes. Troops can use for smoke screen. Smoke screen canisters danger when fired and can cause fires. Gunner “if driver says he has target. I knew to swing to the right”. Commander has over ride to turret if gunner fails to point gun. Hatches closed when firing gun or tow from concealed room or area. Tanks directing hot exhaust into manholes, fighting holes etc. with deflectors.



Killing tanks; the presents of tanks should not be exaggerated, the primary aim in training is to over come any inherent feelings of inferiority, when faced with enemy armor. No attempt should be made to turn training into a drill. This is pointless for there is neither a standard group of fighters nor a single tactic for fighting tanks at close range. Skill and imagination are the only answers.
The Chechen hunter–killer teams, like wolf packs searching out an isolated member of a family of deer, frequently attacked a single armored vehicle simultaneously from several different directions.
Chechen forces employing three- or four-man fire teams composed of a sniper a machine-gunner and a RPG gunner. IMO the teams system should have worked like this, first the sniper would force to crew to button up, then the machine gunner with armor piecing rounds would breach the reactive armor then would come a salvo of RPGs concentrated on the exposed area.

WWII tank vs. tank was rare more common to have tank vs. infantry. Try to separate them allow tanks to sweep over positions, separate fallow on infantry. Which can hold ground. Destroy armor at (T) intersections. Some armor used plows to forge paths. Plow vehicles move slowly and are prime targets, vehicles had to fallow predictable path.

Tanks weak point is with its tracks. Target tanks as they are exposing underside at crest.

Force crew to bottom up. Difficult for crew to observe or keep track of the direction of vehicle (orientation). Vehicle blind spaces most cars 15-20’ RV./van 20-30 ‘trucks 30-40’ short driver 50’.

Unlike the mortar or machine gun which usually target an area, the AT gun had to hit a very specific object, namely an armored vehicle. The AT gun was a purely line of sight weapon. Its round flew on a flat trajectory so the gunner had to have a uninterrupted view of the target.
A Rifle Company in the vanguard of a cautious advance would normally expect a number of guns to support it. The only way to ensure there was always one gun capable of delivering immediate support was to advance them by bounds, one gun covering while another moved to a new position.
To be at their most effective, the first few rounds of AT fire had to come as a complete surprise to the enemy. Concealment and camouflage were vital tasks for the gun crews, perfectly attainable when operating from a well prepared defensive position, less so when deployed to protect infantryman who had just seized their objective.
In open country, the guns were particularly susceptible to fire from the very tanks they sought to destroy, which could pitch HE shells at them from longer range than the crews could respond to with their amour piercing ammunition. In close country, the threat came as much from enemy infantry accompanying the tanks to deal with just such an obstacle. The only defense was to site the guns within the localities defended by friendly riflemen who could repulse the infantry with small arms fire while the gunners engaged the tanks. The guns could also fire high explosive ammunition against infantry targets. Chief among these was the reduction of strong points or fortified buildings were amour piercing rounds proving effective even at their longer ranges.


Tanks vs. ATGMs; never point RPG or other back blast weapons upward or fire from prone (lose limbs). Anti tank weapons placed on elevated position to fire down at tank, 20 degrees angle increases hit 67% at 600 feet. 45 degree doubled odds compared to a surface level shoot. Four inches of vertical clearance over obstacles for muzzle of crew served weapons. Power lines, antennas and poles interfere with lead shots or shots from roofs. If electricity still on may shock operator or burn up computer and sensors. Some ATGMs may have trouble firing over water.

Direct fire weapons may need flank observer due to visibility obscured by dust round falling short, best to over shoot so observer dose not loose site of target. Concentrate indirect fire on lead element. If you try to pick them off one at a time you will be over run before you know it, mass combat power at right place and time. With average country side you well spot tank 1760 feet of range 40% of the time. 1/3 to ½ of a mile range 25% of the time. ¾ to 1 mile 20%. Over one mile 10%. Even in open areas the longest range figure is the rule. Tanks travel in undulations in terrain. Watch for dust esp. after long dry spells.

AT crews should not respond to enemy small arms fire. "At night, we placed a machine gun on both sides of a tank destroyer. When hostile tanks were heard approaching, the machine 'guns fired tracers until ricochets indicated that a tank was being hit. Both guns would then fire at the tank and the ATGM can fire at the point of the "V" formed by the converging tracers."

A number of vulnerable points were identified on machines, notably the vision ports, engine deck plate and the tracks.

The Germans also deployed blocks of explosive which could be hung over the barrel of the main gun, mangling it on detonation.

Smoke grenades or generators (pots filled with chemical compounds) or any available materials including vegetation, were all used.
The hope was the smokescreen would be sufficient to degrade cooperation and mutual support between the tanks, forcing each to fight on its own and be defeated in detail. It should be noted, there was nothing to prevent one tank from machine-gunning the hull of another to clear it of enemy infantry, knowing the crew would be immune.

Germans developed Zimmerit coating. This was applied to Panzers to prevent magnetic charges being fixed to the hull, which proved quite effective.
Molotov cocktail or fire bottle in Red Army parlance.
A group of mines could be laced together and pulled into the path of an oncoming tank, (rather like the 'stinger' beloved of police forces for stopping stolen cars).


SP 7/2000; Russia has developed a motorcycle sidecar that is equipped with an anti-tank guided missile launcher. The sidecar is designed to be equip cross country motorcycles used by reconnaissance units and Special Forces

SP member not a lot of even modern MBTs are built to withstand that many 30mm armor pircing shells across their upperworks. Things like hatches, optics and sights, those roof blow-out panels over bustle-mounted ammo magazines, and especially the radiator grills over the top of the engine decking, those are pitifully weak compared to actual turret faces and side armor.

Using hot tar to coat tanks vision posts etc.



Fighting spirit

Ancient Zulu motto if we go forward we die, if we go backwards we die, best we go forward.
Max Hastings the principal problem in any attack is to maintain momentum. Every instinct especially among the inexperienced is to take cover under fire. Instinct is reinforced when the bodies of others who have failed to do so, lie all around you. Inexperienced troops find it notoriously difficult to assess the extent of the resistance and risk. Marshall it is beyond question that the most serious and repeated break downs on the battle field are caused by the failure to control fear, causing a shrinkage of fire. In the grater number of instances this shrinkage is the result of troops failing to carry out task which are well with in there power.

William Hauser the will to fight four elements:

Submission the process through which the solider is made to do over and over again, the things he dose not wont to do, until he understands that the fundamental rule of his existence is to obey. (Epiphany Pavlov’s dogs conditioning though rules repeatedly, dog things that have no meaning). If this conditioning process has been effective the soldier well continue to submit to the orders of legitimate authority even though the orders are contrary to his fundamental instinct of self preservation. For even the gods have feet of clay. Para’s equipped to last 48 hours. In that time a modern war well be won or lost after two days you are written off. We listened to the talk quietly and with swelling pride. We had never reckoned on being cannon fodder. But the way he told it, it sounded like the highest honor. We had been chosen to die. (Dulce et decorum est pro partria mori.) See appendix training.  

Fear although it makes some flee the battle field that same fear is a major factor in sustaining the will to fight. If the soldier knows and trust his comrades, he well probably perceive more safety in continuing to fight along side of them, than in rearward flight away form them and the enemy they face.

Courage a soldier always has a choice about taking a risk. He can lie there behind a log and theirs nothing you can do about it. No one can make him get up. The risk he must take is a total loss risk, and deciding to take that risk is courage, it is the ultimate definition of a warrior. Courage is contagious, he did it, and I can do it too. Its not that they won’t to do it, but they well do it. Gurkha weapons instructor; He taught us to cock the mechanism, to peel the working parts back and feel them wheeling in perfect harmony-the superb precision of the killing machine. Never go for the limbs or head. Always go for the trunk, the big target. Shoot to kill. The rifle became an extension of our arms, we felt naked without it. Familiarity was what our training was about. Handling your weapon had to become so instinctive that you could kill automatically with out any intervening moment of thought. That’s the measure of a real warrior, accuracy under fire. One day we would sense a kind of fusion between ourselves and the weapon, and on that day we would become real soldiers. On the surface it seemed like oriental mysticism but later I sensed the truth beneath his words. The army had learned over centuries how to harness the savage horse of aggression in every man. Show aggression, courage, endurance, strength and lack compassion, pity and remorse. Anyone could shoot at a target on the range on a sunny day, but making your fire deadly, when you were in someone else’s sights was much harder. In most ordinary units, especially conscript units, half of the soldiers froze during a contact and were unable to fire. There negative instincts had taken over. You had to conquer that fear, to lay down a solid wall of fire, to sting like a cornered bee, to take out the enemy, an aggressive, determined response was the only way to win the firefight. 

Pride the knowledge on the part of a man with a specific function that others depend on and value this particular contribution to their safety and to the unit’s mission. John Boyd in his theory of conflict says that successful forces are held together by a since of mutual trust and sowing distrust is one of the fastest ways to destroy an army. A common saying is… no solider takes a hill for his nation, he takes it for this bodies.

Characteristics of Combat time dilation, a sense of time slowing down or speeding up. Vividness, a heighten awareness of detail. Random thoughts – the mind fixating on unimportant sequences, memory loss.


Epilogue

I wish to make sure no one thinks of me as a terrorist. If anyone, was to line up everyone, who has every known me, and asked them the question-“has (newjarheaddean) ever talked to you about military matters”? All would laugh and reply all the time! My history is the proof of my stability. I don’t have any comrades, underworld contacts, or dilutions of becoming a rebel with a cause. I absolutely believe that the next civil war, which may have already started. Well be an elite/corporate one. The days of grass roots revolutions are over. The masses are nothing more than fuel now. Kind of like in the movie Matrix, HA! I now live with a WW two veteran. He is 86 years old. And a wonderful human being. We love and need each other! He is my mission in life. Seeing to it that he lives as long and as best a life as possible, is what I intend to accomplish. He saved me from a life on the streets. I invite anyone who wishes to know more, to ask me. What fallows is a poem that can also serve as an insight to my mind set. People are entitled to their opinions. But I have yet to meet anyone with facts to prove me wrong about anything much at all.


WAR
War, you just can’t call it war anymore
nor can you say it well last x amount of days
Advanced technology has brought about scientific criminology
Logically speaking, we can only surrender, to that which well ultimately render.

me 1995


THE END

looks like all the Appendixes will have to go on another post.

G-day!
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