AHOY,

7/27/11 08:48 hours; just changed bet to be below.

7/14/11 22:33 hours my apologies there were all kinds of links that posted that went no where or lead back to the top of the post. I have now deleted them all I believe, if not and you click on one you well end up back at the top. I may have deleted a image or two as well, but I well be posting all of them at a latter date.

Well lets see what comes out the other end here, its showing saving errors on the template. It looks like the color code has transferred, however the images have not. I well be adding those to this post and the Tri-F in progress post too, at a later date.

Note pink highlighted material is that that IMO is questionable factually or needs to be defined i.e. explained also it could be a personal note, yellow is location undecided or unedited material, green means a change has been made i.e. an update, red is important.

Don't laugh to much when you see the I.S.A.L.U.T.E. R.W.P. report that I was working on i used to many weapons systems to start with and it got more complicated than i cared to deal with right now. But I believe am on the right track.

So good luck to all on your own organizing of the notes, and on battle field earth too.

APPENDIX STEP # 2 COMMANDERS INTENT

MCA Gazette June 2009; Code of a Naval Officer written by John Paul Jones in the late 1700s. However hard it may be for Marines to turn to a naval officer for leadership advice it would be worse to ignore the timeless advice of this great American leader and hero. Midshipmen at the Naval Academy revere him and consider John Paul Jones both a Revolutionary War hero and father of the U.S. Navy. A tenacious and tireless leader, his maxims on leadership are just as relevant to Marine leaders today as they were to sailors during the days of sail-powered wooden ships. An expository study of John Paul Jones’ Code of a Naval Officer can assist greatly in the development of young leaders, serve as a sounding board for experienced leaders, and may just reveal the true essence of leadership for all leaders—from yesterday, today, and to tomorrow.

It is, by no means, enough that an officer of the Navy should be a capable mariner. He must be that, of course, but also a great deal more. He should be, as well, a gentleman of liberal education, refined manner, punctilious courtesy, and the nicest sense of personal honor. . . . He should be the soul of tact, patience, justice, firmness, and charity. The Marine Corps invests significant time training young leaders in the tactics, techniques, and procedures related to their particular specialty. This preparation is critical because leaders must have a full and complete understanding of their duties. (NCO), must act like a leader in all aspects of life. Honor. Courtesy. Tact. Patience. Firmness. These are to be the hallmarks of a leader’s disposition. How many times has the public, much less the Marine Corps, witnessed leaders who display the opposite of these qualities? How often do leaders, unseen by the public eye, fail to display these qualities? The newspapers and 24-hour news channels are replete with stories of NCOs and officers involved in unethical and inappropriate behavior. This conduct is unsatisfactory and has led to the near complete erosion of the “special trust and confidence” once afforded to young leaders.

He should not only be able to express himself clearly and with force in his own language both with tongue and pen, but he should be versed in French and Spanish. It seems strange that the ability to communicate should be so difficult in this age of information. An unfortunate byproduct of e-mail, text chat, and the Internet is the inability of many leaders to effectively communicate with their peers and Marines in their charge. The ability to speak in front of an audience with confidence and to write clear and logical thoughts is essential for a leader.

Today’s leaders require a liberal knowledge of the cultures and nuances of the countries and regions vital to America’s national security. This knowledge can include proficiency in a foreign language, but is not limited to becoming bilingual. Cultural understanding includes language, economics, societal customs, religion, geography and, most of all, history. Only by understanding the many aspects of foreign societies can leaders expect to operate successfully in the current and future battlefields of the long war where the populace is seen more and more as the center of gravity.

No meritorious act of a subordinate should escape his attention or be left to pass without its reward, if even the reward be only one word of approval. In this modern world of entitlements and handouts, military personnel in all of the Services are beginning to feel that they are owed, or “rate,” an end of tour award for successfully completing a tour, regardless of their actual accomplishments or impact on mission success. This current trend causes the relative value of personal awards to plummet lower and lower until one’s medals have no real meaning at all.

“Praise publicly” “Discipline in private” as an incentive to others. Marines desire to be relevant, and public recognition in the presence of their peers meets that need. A leader who spends enough time in the presence of his Marines will be able to identify meritorious acts and duly recognize them swiftly and in proportion to the act performed—not inflated or deflated. According to this guidance no one rates anything, and all recognition is to be earned and rewarded commensurately.

Learn Discernment; Conversely, he should not be blind to a single fault in any subordinate, though at the same time he should be quick and failing to distinguish error from malice, thoughtlessness from incompetence, and well-meant shortcoming from heedless or stupid blunder. Leaders make decisions every day. Some of these decisions are benign while many can have great ramifications on their subordinates’ lives. The key to making wise decisions is discernment. An experienced leader can discern honest mistakes from malice or incompetence. This leader allows subordinates to learn (and make mistakes) in an environment that is conducive to learning and growing while separating and disciplining the malcontents and incompetent members of the command. A good leader learns the art of discernment through study, by learning from past decisions, and by seeking advice from all levels of leadership. No doubt this is an area where an experienced leader has the advantage, but a junior leader should not be left alone to discern by mere trial and error. This is where the true power of mentorship is witnessed as junior leaders learn from the past mistakes and successes of their seniors. There will always be difficult situations. Through mentorship young leaders can learn how to handle the hard cases of discipline and motivation with discernment and discretion following Jones’ more well-known maxim to “discipline in private.” Implicit in Jones’ instruction is for leaders (at all levels) to be visible. It is not enough to command from the corner.

Impartial Justice; As he should be universal and impartial in his rewards and approval of merit, so should he be judicial and unbending in his punishment or reproof of misconduct. All leaders have favorites. It’s a fact. One of the most difficult actions a leader can take is imposing discipline or punishment on a favorite subordinate. Leaders desire to promote and award while accepting the responsibility to punish. Conflict is hard, and many leaders abdicate this role to their subordinate leaders or abandon it all together to the detriment of good order and discipline. This is a travesty. The just and impartial imposition of rewards and punishment within a command is vital if a leader is to serve as the moral arbitrator and judge in the command. Only through consistently treating all subordinates in an equal manner will leaders be able to lead without the stain of favoritism or discrimination. Justice, above all else, should be the goal of any leader in the decision to reward or punish. The charges presented in Jones’ code should sound familiar to Marines. Unfortunately, familiarity does not always equal action, and there are many Marine Corps leaders today who do not live up to these standards. Let this article serve as a wake-up call for action! America’s Marines deserve this standard of leadership. Like the maxims of the classical strategists, the qualities of good leadership are timeless and unchanging. Not only should the Marine Corps indoctrinate young leaders in the tactics of great warriors, it should imbue them with their wisdom too. The Code of a Naval Officer serves as a brief testament to the enduring qualities of those who have gone before us and as an instruction pamphlet for today’s leaders. If continually referenced and followed, this code can provide the necessary “rudder guidance” to ensure that Marine leaders continue to set the example for solid leadership and high performance for many years to come.

APPENDIX MM&W

MOUNTAIN ROUTE PLANNING

Map Reconnaissance. Check the date of the map. Avoid the use of manmade features as checkpoints due to their unreliability and lack of permanence. Topographic maps provide the primary source of information concerning the area of operations. A 1:25,000 map depicts greater detail than a 1:50,000 map and should be used whenever possible. Because examination of the micro-terrain is so important for mountain operations, even larger scale maps are desirable. Civilian 1:12,000 maps can be used if available. Aerial, oblique angle, photographs give details not always shown on maps (crags and overhangs) note crag is defined as a steep cliff or rock point. Along with sketch maps, verbal descriptions, documented information gathered from units previously in the area, or published sources such as alpine journals or climbing guides may help. Forest service and logging and mining company maps provide additional information, often showing the most recent changes to logging trails and mining access roads.

When conducting a map reconnaissance, pay close attention to the marginal information. Mountain-specific terrain features may be directly addressed in the legend. In addition, such facilities as ski lifts, cable and tramways are often found. Along with the standard topographic map color scheme, there are some commonly seen applications for mountainous terrain. White with blue contours indicates glaciers or permanent snowfields. The outline of the snow or ice is shown by dashed blue lines while their contour lines are solid blue. High ice cliffs which are equal to or exceed the contour interval will be shown. Low ice cliffs and ice caves may be indicated if they provide local landmarks. Brown contour lines on white mean dry areas without significant forest cover. Areas above tree line, clear cuts, rock or avalanche slide paths and meadows are all possible. Study the surrounding terrain and the legend for other clues. An important point to remember is that thick brush in small gullies and streambeds may not be depicted by green, but should still be expected.

Obstacles, such as rivers and gorges, will require technical equipment to cross if bridges are not present. Fords and river crossing sites should be identified. Due to the potential for hazardous weather conditions, potential bivouac sites are noted on the map. Ruins, barns, sheds and terrain-protected hollows are all possible bivouac sites. Danger areas in the mountains; isolated farms and hamlets, bridges, roads, trails, and large open areas above tree line, are factored in, and plans made to avoid them. Use of terrain-masking becomes essential because of the extended visibility offered by enemy observation points on the dominant high ground.

In the Northern Hemisphere. Southern slopes are sunnier and drier than northern slopes, with sparser or different types of vegetation. Northern slopes can be snowier and, because of more intense glaciations in past ages, are often steeper. Opposite rules apply in the Southern Hemisphere.

During calm weather, your rate of movement will be significantly faster than during periods of inclement weather. If the weather turns bad, forested areas provide welcome relief from wind and blowing snow. Heavy spruce/fir tangles slow progress to a crawl. Individual loads also affect march rates. Combined soldier loads that exceed 50 pounds per man can be expected to slow movement significantly in mountainous terrain. Given the increased weight of extra ammunition for crew-served weapons, basic mountaineering gear, and clothing for mountain travel, it becomes obvious that soldiers will be carrying weights well in excess of that 50-pound limit.

Heavily glaciated granite mountains pose different problems than does river-carved terrain. The U-shaped valley bulldozed out by a glacier forces maneuver elements down to the valley floor or up to the ridge tops, while the water-cut V-shape of river valleys allows movement throughout the compartment.

Routes through granite rock (long cracks, good friction; use of pitons, chocks and camming units) will call for different equipment and technique than that used for steep limestone (pockets, smooth rock; bolts, camming units).

Operations above tree line in temperate climates or in the brushy zone of arid mountains means that material for suspension traverse A-frames must be packed. The thick brush and krummholtz mats of subalpine zones and temperate forested mountains can create obstacles that must be bypassed.

Time-Distance Formulas.

Computing march rates in the mountains is difficult, especially in snow. The following rates are listed as a guide. Rates are given for movement over flat or gently rolling terrain for individuals carrying a rifle and loaded rucksack.

On foot (no snow cover), 2 to 3 kph (cross-country), 3 to 4 kph (trail walking)

On foot (less than 1 foot of snow), 1.6 to 3.2 kph(cross-country), 2 to 3.2 kph(trail walking)

On foot (more than 1 foot of snow), .4 to 1.2 kph(cross-country), 2 to 3.2 kph(trail walking)

Snowshoeing, 1.6 to 3.2 kph(cross-country), 3.2 to 4 kph(trail walking). Skiing, 1. to 5.6 kph(cross-country), 4.8 to 5.6 kph(trail walking). Skijoring, N/A(cross-country), 3 to 24 kph(trail walking).

March distances in mountainous terrain are often measured in time rather than distance units. In order to do this, first measure the map distance. This distance plus 1/3 is a good estimate of actual ground distance. Add one hour for each 1,000 feet of ascent or 2,000 feet of descent to the time estimate.

Accidentally /purposely discharged weapon by IA members to worn of joint patrol presence.

Cave, Caverns and Tunnel Characteristics

Haloclines of different types of water can look like air pockets.

Geologists define “cave” as a naturally occurring room or passage in bedrock, large enough to be entered by a human being, and “cavern” as two or more such interconnected underground rooms or passages.

Four basic types of caves, coral, sea, lava-tube , and solution caves.

Coral, famous for its ability to secrete calcium carbonate and build large limestone reefs. Mostly occur in tropical oceans and support diverse marine organisms. Created when the tops of neighboring coral heads grow together to create tunnels within the reef. Passages tend to be small, short, and irregular. Projecting coral heads may snag a diver and backing out of a small cave is often very difficult. Floor commonly composed of white, carbonate sand. Water clarity, may be quite good. Holes may exist in the ceiling and a diver may be able to see one or more alternate exits. Caves appear less foreboding. Contain much less marine life than the sunlit portion of the reefs, solitary corals, sponges, and other organisms may be found on the ceiling, walls and floor. Schools of small fish and lobsters occasional large fish, such as grouper, nurse sharks, or moray eels, which can be startling when they are encountered unexpectedly in close quarters.

Terms: Speleothems, or types of cave formations. Stalactites and stalagmites. Spelunkers, sump is a completely submerged passageway within an air filled cave that blocked further exploration until until the advent of scuba gear.

Karst hydrology, speleologists those who engage in the scientific study and exploration of caves, their environment, and biology. Lithify the sediment, turning it to rock.

Sea caves formed by battering-ram effect of waves against cliffs. Many have spectacularly large entrances passage development in sea caves is usually not extensive. Rarely exceed several hundred feet in length force of the waves is dissipated rapidly against the walls of the cave. Form along the coasts of lakes, most common along the pacific and northeast Atlantic coasts, lake Huron, Caribbean islands, seacoasts in Mexico. Form in coastal surf zone, or littoral zone. Littoral caves may be a more accurate name for sea caves. Most not completely filled with water. Consequently they have a lower risk form overhead obstructions than other kinds of caves. Nevertheless, submerged ledges and spaces beneath boulders may pose objective hazards, especially in heavy surf keeps particles in suspension. Contain abundant sea life, anemones, shellfish, sea urchins, and sea mammals. Strong, unpredictable wave wash and currents usually occur. Drag even the strongest of divers along the floor and across sharp seashells and sea urchins, bash divers against walls. It is generally wise to dive in when the tide is slack and wave height is low.

Lava-tube caves. When lava emerges from volcanic vents and flows downhill loss of heat to the atmosphere causes the outer layer of lava to solidify first. Sometimes the still molten core continues to flow, draining the bridged-over area and leaving behind a hollow tube, called a lava tube cave. Roof is thin, fairly common, number of collapses may occur multiple entrances. Always form on dry land. Diveable lava-tube caves occur mostly alone volcanic coastlines where the caves been submerged by rising sea level over approximately the last 20,000 years. In the US pacific northwest and Hawailan islands. Some parts of Mexico, Africa, and canary islands. Often simple conduits. Ape cave in the state of Washington, has over 12,000 feet of passage with widths up to 10 feet and heights of up to 40 feet. Kazumura cave in Hawaii has over 7-1/2 miles of surveyed passageways both are dry caves. Most formed in dark-gray to black rock called basalt. The dark colored rock absorbs tremendous amounts of light. Contain extensive amounts of clay and silt that can reduce visibility to zero if stirred up.

Solution caves. By far the most numerous and extensive type of caves found. Flint ridge mammoth cave system of Kentucky over 400 miles in length constantly expanding contain the largest underground chamber. The big room of Carlsbad caverns in New Mexico, for example, is over 300 feet high, 600 feet wide and 4000 feet long. Name from the fact that they are formed by the dissolution of certain kinds of sedimentary rock, limestone and dolomite, by weakly acidic, flowing groundwater. Limestone and dolomite occur over approximately 15 % of the world’s land surface. In north America found wherever carbonate rocks crop out, such as in belts along the folded (western) part of the Appalachians, throughout much of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia where the limestone is nearly horizontal: in the Ozarks of Missouri, northern Arkansas, and eastern Oklahoma: in the Edwards plateau region of central Texas: in and along the flanks of numerous mountain rages in the Rocky Mountains: in northern and central Florida: in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and throughout the entire Caribbean archipelago. The solution Cave most frequently dived are located in Florida, the Bahamas, Texas, Missouri and Mexico. Soluble rock two kinds of soluble rocks that are important for cave diving are limestone and dolomite. They are called carbonate rocks because of their chemical composition, and dissolve more readily than most other rock types. Limestone is a rock made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dolomite (also known as dolostone) is a rock made of calcium-magnesium carbonate (CaMg (CO3)2.

Limey sediment is produced most abundantly in shallow tropical oceans where the water is relatively clear and free from siliceous sediment. Nearly all the lime is derived from the calcareous skeletons form animals and certain types of algae, a small amount of the calcium carbonate is deposited directly from the seawater. The texture of the limestone may range from large, solid colonies of intergrown coral, to seashells to sand sized, broken bits of shells, to microscopic crystals. Limestone is a tremendously variable type of rock and this description barely begins to explore the possibilities.

Hydrogeology. Caves can form in soluble rock wherever a source of acid is present and groundwater flow is sufficient to carry away the products of dissolution. Scientists have identified a number of sources of acid, but the most important one carbon dioxide, occurs as a gas in the atmosphere and more especially, in the soil. Carbon dioxide in moist, organic-rich soil by the respiration of micro-organisms and the processes of decay. Rainwater filtering down through the organic matter in soil absorbs carbon dioxide to from carbonic acid (H2C03). Near the surface, tiny air pockets and infiltrating water. This zone of aerated material is known as the vadose zone. Eventually the downward percolating water reaches a depth where the pores and joints are completely filled with water. The water saturated portion of the ground is called the phreatic zone. The top of the phreatic zone is called the water table. Horizontal and vertical cave passages can form both above and below the water table. The relative importance of cave development above or below the water table has been debated at great length. A consensus has developed that most cave development initially takes place a short distance below the water table in the shallow part of the phreatic zone. Acidic water flowing through joints in the vadose zone tends to drop vertically to the water table. At the water table, the downward flow is impeded because the pores and joints are filled with water. Consequently once the water reaches the phreatic zone it tends to move laterally from areas where the water table is high, to the lowest available outlet. The phreatic zone may fluctuate with changes of season and during wet and dry periods. Local geologic, geographic and environmental conditions can greatly influence the type of cave that can develop and control the hydrologic function of the cave. A wide variety of forms and functions are possible.

Karst terrain. Limestone region marked by sinks and interspersed with abrupt ridges, irregular protuberant rocks, caverns and underground streams. The term is derived from and area in northwestern Yugoslavia, called the Carso Plateau where the karst features where first describe.

Water sources. Although there are a few documented instances of underground rivers running for tens of miles, most major springs can be accounted for on the basis of rainfall within a relatively restricted surface region. Rainbow springs one of Florida’s first-magnitude springs, is only in the neighborhood of 25 x 35 square miles. However, in some cases flows may originate from sources under tremendous pressure thousands of feet belowground. The water from warm mineral springs for example is thought to come from the 3000 foot boulder zone. The largest karst spring in the US is probably Silver Springs, near Ocala in central Florida. Discharges 960 cubic feet per second on average. Certain other, closely related groups of springs have average discharges that total even more. Any spring that has an average discharge of more than 100 cubic feet per second (64.4 million gallons per day or about the amount of freshwater required each day for a city of 100,000 is classified as a first magnitude spring. Based on available publications there are 27 first magnitude springs in Florida, 15, in Oregon, 14, in Idaho, 8 in Missouri, and 4 in California.

The cave springs that are of interest to divers are , of course, the ones that are completely filled with water. Cave springs commonly appear as pools from which a stream, or run, flows. Frequently, a smooth area, or slick, occurs on the surface f the spring pool above the mouth of the cave. The water discharged from a cave spring flows down the run to a larger surface stream, lake, or the ocean. Spring runs are usually less than a few hundred yards long, but in some cases, like Ichetucknee springs in Florida, they are several miles long. Siphons the point at which part or all of the water of a sinking surface stream sinks into the ground or enters a cave is called a swallow hoe, or ponor, or particularly by divers a siphon. Instead of having a slick on the surface like a spring pool, a siphon pool will commonly has floating debris and water plants revolving slowly above the cave opening in a spiral pattern called a gyre. This whirlpool-like feature is a telltale indication that water is flowing into the ground. Siphons may drain entire rivers, as is the case for the Chipola and Santa Fe rivers in Florida, which sink underground only to reappear miles away. Driving in sipons is much more dangerous than diving in a spring, because of the inflowing current which most be over come to exit, and the inflowing river water may have poor or no visibility.

Sinkholes. Karst terrain is characterized by numerous depressions in the ground surface, known as dolines or sinkholes. these may be shaped like bowls, downward-pointing cones or cylinders. May range from less than one foot to several hundred feet deep. Widths vary from less than one foot to several thousand feet. Water flows toward the bottom of the sinkhole and generally soaks into the ground. Solutionally enlarged openings in the bedrock, often filled with soil or broken rock, usually connect the sinkhole to an interconnected cavern. Sinkholes are formed by three principle mechanisms. First, solution may produce a depression on the top of bedrock, thus forming a solution sinkhole. Second a cave roof may collapse causing the overlying ground to settle and forming a bedrock cavern- collapse sinkhole. Third soil or unconsolidated material may wash downward into pre existing voids in the bedrock, thus causing the surface to subside, and forming a subsidence sinkhole. Subsidence of the cover material may be very rapid or very slow, so subsidence sinkholes can be subdivided into cover collapse (rapid) and cover-subsidence is caused by erosion that starts at the base of the soil or unconsolidated material, and works its way up to affect the surface. Subsidence sinkholes are by far the most common type of sinkhole in areas where appreciable soil cover exists, as in much of Florida. Bedrock cavern collapse sinkholes are perhaps the easiest to visualize, and they do occur, but generally they are much less common. The floor of a sinkhole may be bare rock or be covered with soil, or contain a cave entrance. The floor may be dry or flooded. A sinkhole with water in the bottom is called a karst lake or karst pond, or less properly, a sinkhole lake. Karst ponds may range in width from a few feet to several hundred feet. Although they may be small. They may be hundreds of feet deep. Some karst ponds have a cave entrance in the floor of the pond. In Florida, the entrance commonly leads down into a vertical shaft. At depth the walls may widen and thus create large overhanging ledges. In cross section, the sloping floor of the pond and the increasing width of the cave frequently has an hourglass configuration. If soil has washed down from the surface or if much rock has fallen from the ceiling, a cone of debris may be present on the floor of the cave. Horizontal caves may be present anywhere along the walls of the vertical shaft. If little collapse or sedimentation has occurred then one might find two cave passages at the bottom of the shaft, one leading upstream and the other leading downstream. Divers call the upstream passage the spring cave and the downstream the siphon cave. The terms simply denote the relative direction of current flow.

Cenotes are vertically walled or slightly over-hanging shafts in bare or thinly mantled limestone terrain, and were first described in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. Width is approximately equal to the depth, the bottom of the shaft contains water. In plan view they are approximately circular. They are generally considered cave collapse sinkholes. Dismal Sink, south of Tallahassee, Florida is a good example of a cenote.

Karst Windows, are cavern collapses that reveal a segment of a stream that other wise flows through an underground course. The upstream and downstream sections of the cave are separated by a short segment of stream channel that is exposed to the surface. Ex is River sink, south of Tallahassee, Florida. Flow emerges from the north side of a pool that is 65 feet wide and 280 feet long, and passes into an underground channel at the south end of the pool. Its not a spring however, even though it is listed as a first-magnitude. The flow probably emerges further south at Wakulla spring which forms the headwaters of the Wakulla River.

Sumps, a water filled section of cave passage within a cave that has other passages that are at least partially air filled. Occur where the passage descends to a lower elevation below the water table, or the roof becomes low enough that the cave stream can fill the passage. In some cases a sump may lead to entirely air-filled passages. Sump diving is the most advanced form of cave exploration since it requires both caving and cave-diving skills. Difficulties may include transporting equipment long distances through rugged passages, fouling of gear by mud and sand, cold water, no visibility in the water, numerous tight restrictions.

Underground lakes, very large sumps are sometimes referred to as lakes, most common in mountainous regions, although several are documented in Florida, The lost sea, in Tennessee, is the largest in North America, with a surface area of 4.9 acres. Dragon’s Breath cave I Namibia, is the worlds largest 5.2 acres. With vissiblity exceeding 300 foot.

Hazards: the cavern ceiling limits direct ascent to the surface. Currents, the strength can very depending on recent weather. If rain fall is light and steady, much of this water is absorb into the ground. Minimizing surface runoff to local rivers, and currents in the caves that drain the area will be stronger than normal. With downpours, rivers rise rapidly, current within the cave current will be low and may even reverse. Thus a spring may temporarily become a siphon. In sea caves, lava tubes, cenotes current may change with tides.

Visibility, sometimes exceeding several hundred feet. May vary considerably in different caves and within the same cave at different times of the year. It depends on the amount of suspended particulates and the dissolved chemicals in the water. Particulates classified by their chemical composition (organic vs. inorganic) and by their size (sand being 2.0-0.64 mm in diameter, silt being 0.064-0.002 mm, and clay less than 0.002mm). Divers refer to all fine grain particles as silt and the act of stirring them up as silting. Total loss of visibility AKA silt out. Terms used to classify the time particles effect visibility if disturbed are sand, mung, mud, and clay.

Sand, is a relatively heavy, coarse material, composed of ground-up rock or mineral, usually with a light –colored, clean appearance. It tends to settle out of the water very quickly, within minutes. Mung is organic growth that occurs in marine caves, varies in size, but is very light remains suspended for considerable time. In low flow marine caves it tends to cover everything. Mud maybe neither organic or inorganic, dose not have the lose dry appearance of sand but looks more like mud on the surface. More often than not it is dark in color, can take several hours to settle. Clay is the worst taking days or weeks to settle. A diver may not be able to see a bright light inches away form his face. A small amount of clay that is clinging to a pressure gauge that has been dragged carelessly along the bottom may create a cloud of silt that follows the diver through the cavern. Silt maybe loosely or tightly compacted. Something dropped on a very compacted mud floor may stir up a little silt and remain on surface, however on a loosely pack clay surface it might disappear. Compactness may very significantly within a cave. The amount of silt, type of silt, and ease with which it can be disturbed, varies depending on the velocity of the current and the type of sediment available in the area around the cave. Passages with strong currents may contain only sand, gravel, or have bare rock walls. On the other hand, because small particles accumulate where the current is low, soft and easily disturbed silt is most likely to occur in passages that have little or no current. Because of gravity, sediment is usually thickest on the floor of the passage, and or walls and ceiling, and partially eroded mud banks may form the wall in places. Because of this even the most cautious diver may cause some silting, if only because his exhaust bubbles disturb the ceiling silt.

Chemicals:

Tannic acid, which is produced by decaying vegetation in swampy areas, imparts a drk brown tea color to water. Obviously, caves that siphon river water tainted with this brown pigment have very poor visibility. Another chemical, hydrogen sulfide, is frequently found at the interface between the freshwater and saltwater layers that occur in some sinkholes, especially those lying along coastal regions. Although no toxic reactions due to hydrogen sulfide have yet been reported in divers, hydrogen sulfide can cause visual distortion because of the way it refracts light. Since all surface light is usually lost below a hydrogen sulfide layer, cavern divers should always remain in the freshwater above. A third kind of visual impairment occurs in marine caves which have layers of water with different concentrations of salt. Visual distortion can occur when looking through one layer to another, and when swimming along the interface between layers, or haloclines.

Weather and Geography. The amount of particulates and chemicals found in the water at the beginning of a dive depends in a large part on the weather and presence of sinkholes. Heavy rains will wash tannic acid and particulates into sinkholes. thus if near marshy areas and have numerous sinkholes is limited during rainy season and clearest during droughts. On the other hand springs located along rivers in areas that lack sinkholes and where the surrounding terrain is dry and sandy, tend to be very clear. Only when the rivers rise, causing the springs to reverse flow, can dark river water be found in these caverns. Reversing tidal currents in blue holes may also alter visibility by bringing turbid ocean water into the cave. While the water visibility may change due to conditions outside the diver’s control, such as a sudden rainstorm that washes mud into the cavern, loss of visibility during a dive is most frequently caused by diver silting. With the careless flip of a fin, a diver may reduce visibility for hundreds of feet. Silting is most serious in caves which contain little or no current. In small passages silting well reduce vision from ceiling to floor, in large cavern, you may be able to ascend into clearer water near the ceiling to exit.

Restrictions. Localized narrowings of cave passages are called restrictions. Restrictions greatly complicate silting.

Large passages and mazes. Passages frequently look quite different when you are returning the other direction. You must use a guide line to the exit and keep it in site, run it along the wall or floor rather than mid water. Line traps, many passages are large at one end and narrow at the other end if you pull your line through and silt the narrow end it can be difficult to exit camber, in such cases the line will appear to pass right into the wall. Line is routed around rock outcroppings, keep tension on it at all times to hold it in place.

Cave-ins are very rare, there have been some documented cases of divers finding evidence of cave ins between dives. When a cave is submerged at all times the water serves as a support. This situation is more stable than one subjected to alternation periods of partial and complete submergence, accompanied by drastic changes in the groundwater saturation of the surface bedrock forming the ceiling, which place tremendous strain on the support structures. Resulting in a sinkhole, some are ancient and therefore relatively stable and safe. Others are more recent, or even active and visibly unstable.

Appendix ISALUTERWP

Note, IMO the differences in data figures given for weapons systems, (that I did not mention in my data) are not enough to make any practical tactical difference. Remember all these figures are just the revealed data, and should be judged as rounded off and ball park to give one an idea of capabilities. Figures also change with different types of ammo and or weather conditions and altitudes.

EQUIPMENT AND WEAPONS AVAILABLE:

Example of Equipment and Weapons Available report; aka e-war. Howitzers, cannons, guns, motors;

I) I.D. designation/ AKA, nicknames, classification. Note classification is detailed under (U).

2A36 Giatsint-B. A45 Sprut-A, (NATO classification - Squid). 2A75. 2S19 msta. 2S25 Sprut-SD. AMX 30 AUF1. AS-90. G6- 52. K-9 thunder. M107. M109. M110. M119. Pantsir-S1 (NATO reporting name SA-22 Greyhound). PZH 2000. PLZ 45. SSPH. TRF-1.

Belgium Towed rifled motor 120mm rg. 8km. 13km ram.

MOTORS;

60 mm motor range (3500m) 3960 yard 2 ¼ miles. 81 (M29A1) range (4600m) 5280 yards 3 miles (M252) (5600m) 6160 yd 3 ½ miles, 107mm motor range (6800m) 7480 yd 4 ¼ miles, 120mm motor (M285) 7200m 7920 yd 4 ½ miles, 105 (M102) (11500m) 12320 yards 7 miles, 105mm (M119) (14000m) 15840 yd 9 miles, 155mm (M198) (18000m) 19800 yd 11 ¼ miles. Note all figures would double using ICMs.

Types of rounds;

PROJECTILE

60 HE,WP, ILLUM, 81mm HE WP ILLUM, , 81mm (M252) HE,WP ILLUM, RAP. 107mm HE,WP ILLUM, 120mm HE ILLUM, SMK, 105mm ILLUM, HEP-T, APICM, CHEM,APERS,RAP. 105mm HE M760
ILLUM, HEP-T, APICM, CHEM,RAP 155mm HE,WP, ILLUM, SMK, CHEM, NUC, RAP, FASCAM, CPHD,
AP/DPICM.

Max rates of fire then sustained rates, information respectfully in order i.e. 60mm 30 rpm for one minute then 20 rpm. 81mm (M29A1) 30 rpm then 8 rpm, 81mm (M252) 30 rpm for two minutes then 15 rpm. 107mm 18 then 3, 120mm 15 for three minutes then 5 rpm. 105mm 10 then 3 rpm both types, 155mm 4 rpm then 2 rpm.

FPF area coverage;

60mm x 2 tubes, (60x30m) 200 x 100 feet. 81mm x 4 tubes (100x35 meters) 300 x 115 feet. 105mm x 6 guns 180 x 40 meters. 107 x 6 tubes 300 x 40 meters. 155mm x 4 guns 200 x 50 meters, x 6 guns 300 x 50, x 8 guns (400 x 50 meters) 1320 or ¼ mile x 165 feet.

Naval guns;

16 inch guns 50 cal. Ranges max and min. 36000 m 900m rates of fire 2 rpm then 1 rpm.

5 inch 38 cal. Ranges 15000m 900m rates of fire 22 rpm then 15 rpm.

5 inch 54 cal. Range 22000 m 900m 40 rpm then 20 rpm.

Note all manner of projectiles.

Total weight for the M224 mortar, including M8 handheld baseplate and SL3, is 76.6 pounds.

M888 60mm rounds weigh 3.9 pounds each, so firing just 8 rounds in 1 minute expends more than double the weight of ammunition.

M141 SMAW-D disposable rocket

CALIBER

60-mm

81-mm

81-mm
(improved)

107-mm

120-mm

105-mm

155-mm

MODEL

M224

M29A1

M252

M30

M285

M102

M119

M198

MAX RANGE
(HE)(m)

3,490

4,595

5,608

6,840

7,200

11,500

14,000

18,100

PLANNING
RANGE (m)

11,500

14,600

PROJECTILE

HE,WP,
ILLUM,

HE,WP,
ILLUM,
RP

HE,WP,
ILLUM,

HE,SMK,
ILLUM,

HE,WP,
ILLUM,
HEP-T,
APICM,
CHEM,
APERS,
RAP

HE M760
ILLUM,
HEP-T,
APICM,
CHEM,
RAP

HE,WP,
ILLUM,
SMK,
CHEM,
NUC,
RAP,
FASCAM,
CPHD,
AP/DPICM

MAX RATE
OF FIRE

30 RPM
FOR
1 MIN

30 RPM
FOR
2 MIN

18 RPM
FOR
1 MIN

15 RPM
FOR
3 MIN

10 RPM
FOR
1 MIN

4 RPM
FOR
1 MIN

SUSTAINED
RATE OF FIRE
(rd/min)

MIMIMUM
RANGE (m)

770

180

DIRECT
FIRE

FUZES

PD, VT,
TIME,
DLY

PD,
VT, MT,
MTSQ,
CP, DLY

PD, VT,
MTSQ,
CP, MT,
DLY

PD, VT,
CP, MT,
MTSQ,
DLY

LEGEND:
AP - Armor Piercing / APERS – Antipersonnel / APICM - Aitipersonnel Improved Conventional Munitions / CHEM – Chemical / CP - Concrete Piercing / CPHD – Copperhead / DLY – Delay / DPICM - Dual Purpose Inproved Conventional Munitions / FASCAM - Family of Scatterable Mines / HE - High Explosive / HEP-T - High Explosive Plastic Tracer
ILLUM – Illumination / MIN – Minute / MO - Multioption - VT, PD, DLY / MT - Mechanical Time / MTSQ - Mechanical Time Super Quick / NUC – Nuclear / PD - Point Detonating / RAP - Rocket Assisted Projectile / RP - Red Phosphorous
RPM - Rounds per minute / SMK – Smoke / TIME - Adjustable Time Delay / VT - Variable Time / WP - White Phosphorous

S) Numbers, manufactured, available. Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording. Note with weights weapons are list from heaviest to lightest.

Weight K-9 56 tons. PZH 2000 53 tons/ turret only 12 tons, mounted on the same chassis as the U.S. MLRS rocket launcher, the AGM weighs 27 tons. If on a heavy (6x6) truck about 23 tons. G-6 47 tons. 2S19 42 tons. M109 28 tons. 2A36 10.5 tons. TRF-1 10 tons. 2A45 (towing) 7 tons, (self-propelled) 7.5 tons, (firing) 14,495 lbs. M119 4520 lbs/2.25 tons. Width/track. 2A36 the under carriage is 2.340 m. M109 10 ft, 2A45 (towing) 2.66 m (8.72 ft) (self-propelled) 2.66 m (8.72 ft). Track: 2A45 7.21 ft. Length 2A36 is 12.92 m long in transport configuration and 12.30 m long in firing configuration. M109 30 ft. 2A45 (towing) 23.35 ft, (self-propelled) 22.27 ft. TRF-1 60 feet.

Height 2A36 2.760 m (in transport configuration) M109 11 ft. 2A45 (towing) 6.85 ft (self-propelled) 7.70 ft. Ground clearance / fording: 2A45 fording 1.18 ft.

A) Activity this is recent activities observed. Here again we use the five Ws and a H. Who unit or individual. What specific activities observed i.e. deployment. Where specific locations of activities i.e. deployment. When time and date. How are they manufactured (note information would only be mentioned if it points out any weaknesses or strength of the system), field stripping i.e. disassemble, reassemble, operated, specific details on individual techniques of carrying or deploying. Trouble shooting, I.A.D.

How example; 2A36 the gun can be used in various weather conditions and has been tested in temperatures ranging from −50 °C to 50 °C. M119 it can be easily airlifted, even by helicopter, or dropped by parachute. M119 It does not need a recoil pit. Pantsir-S1 a number of targets that can be simultaneously engaged: 4 (three by radar, one by electro-optic) Maximum number of targets engagement rate: 10 per minute. Reaction time: 4-6 seconds (from target acquisition to firing first missile) Aerial targets includes everything with minimum radar-cross-section of 2 cm sq. to 3 m sq. and speeds up to a maximum of 1000 meter/second within a maximum range of 20,000 meters and heights up to 15,000 meters. The two independent guidance channels - radar and EO - allow two targets to be engaged simultaneously. Maximum engagement rate is up to 10 targets per minute. PzH 2000 the turret contains a fully automated loading system. TRF-1 Set up 2 minutes.

It is assumed that the eight Javelin systems at battalion will be moved to the companies and four additional systems purchased. This raises the issue, outside the scope of this article, of what to do with the 16 Marines who man the Javelin in weapons company. Possibilities are to have them continue to man ground-mounted antitank guided missiles (ATGMs), add them to the scout/sniper platoon for improved battalion intelligence capability, add them to the combined antiarmor team platoons as dismounts, or move them to the infantry companies.

L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.

2A36 Soviet/Russian Armenia, Azerbaijan, Finland designated 52 K 89, Georgia, Iraq, Lebanon. 2A45, Sprut A and 2A45M Sprut B, Russia, Hungary, Yugoslavia. 2A45, Sprut A and 2A45M Sprut B, Russia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, 2S19 Russian. AMX 30 AUF1 France. AS-90 UKs. G6-52 South African. K-9 thunder South Korea, M109 US Army, (NATO) it is deployed at 54 units per armored division and mechanized division (3 battalions of 18 vehicles equipping 3 batteries of 6 M-109). M119 UK, USA. M110 Spain and US. Pantsir-S1 Ru. the system produced by KBP of Tula. Pantsir-S1 RU. Iran, India, Syria, Algeria, UAE. PLZ 45 China, PZH 2000 Germany, SSPH primus, TRF-1 Cyprus, Saudi Arabia.

U) Units Variants, caliber, photos, decals, color schemes. And also Utility uses/function/classification mounted or unmounted direct or indirect fire, crew served, small arms. Note ID first then photo etc.

2A36 Giatsint-B 152 mm 54 caliber. Towed Rifled howitzer.

2A45 Sprut-A, (NATO classification - Squid) are the designations of the Soviet Smoothbore 125 mm anti-tank gun. 2A45M Sprut-B Self propelled towed gun.

2A45

2S19 msta 152 mm. Self propelled howitzer. 2S25 Sprut-SD A self propelled gun mounted on the BMD-3 chassis with a turret mounting the stabilized 2A75 125mm smoothbore gun. AMX 30 AUF1, 155mm. AS-90 155mm. G6- 52 155 mm. Self propelled wheeled vehicle, K-9 thunder, 155 mm. M107 175-mm. self-propelled gun. M109 is a 155mm. Self propelled indirect fire support. M110 8” 203 mm howitzer self propelled.

M119, Caliber 105mm towed howitzer. M119A1, M119A2.

M119 photo edited

Pantsir-S1 is a combined surface-to-air missile and 30 mm gun (Designation: 2A38M) twin-barrel automatic AAA system for motorized AKA mechanized troops up to regimental size or as defensive asset of higher ranking air defense systems like S-300/S-400. Mounted either on a tracked or wheeled vehicle or stationary. Variants the system is a further development of SA-19/SA-N-11. A simplified, lower-cost version is also being developed for export, with only the electro-optic fire control system fitted.

Pantsir-S1 photo edited

PZH 2000, 155mm. The AGM (Artillery Gun Module) puts the 12.5 ton PzH 2000 turret on a lighter armored vehicle, or heavy truck. PLZ 45, 155 mm. SSPH primus 155mm. TRF-1 155mm towed howitzer. Belgium Towed rifled motor 120mm rg. 8km. 13km ram.

T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.

2A36 entered service in 1976. 2A45 created in the late 1980s. AS-90? M107 1950s.

M109 1960 M119 Place of origin United Kingdom 1975. M110 No longer in use. PZH 2000?

E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes. Transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional details are located under other categories.

2A36 Carriage Split trail, sole plate, auxiliary power unit and hydraulics. Have been modernized and are equipped with: Battery "NAP" satellite positioning unit Satellite receiver, Antenna unit, Self-orientating gyroscopic angle-measuring system, Computer, Mechanical speed gauge. 2A45 Crew of seven. The most distinctive feature of the Sprut-B is its APU. APU can propel the gun on relatively flat surfaces (up to 15 degrees slope) and at 14km/h on roads. This gives the gun a measure of mobility on the battle field - although it takes 2 minutes to go from firing position to traveling position and 1.5 minutes to go from traveling position to firing position. During the day the OP4M-48A direct fire sight is used, at night the 1PN53-1 night vision sight is used. For indirect fire the 2Ts33 iron sights are used, along with the PG-1m panoramic sight. The barrel features a thermal sleeve to prevent temperature changes affecting the accuracy. M109 A2s and A3s improved with Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical / (NBC/RAM) improvements, including air purifiers, heaters, and Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) gear. Fire direction center (FDC). The battery FDCs in turn coordinates fires through a battalion or higher FDC. This allows the Paladin to halt from the move and fire within 30 seconds with accuracy equivalent to the previous models when properly emplaced, laid, and safed--A process that required several minutes under the best of circumstances. (M992 the Field Artillery Ammunition Supply Vehicle (FAASV) is built on the chassis of the M109-series. Has a taller superstructure to store 93 rounds and an equivalent number of powders and primers. There is a maximum of 90 conventional rounds, 45 each in two racks, and 3 M712 Copperhead rounds. Much of the remaining internal crew space is taken up by a hydraulically powered conveyor system designed to allow the quick uploading of rounds or transfer of rounds. Most early models had an additional mechanism called an X-Y Conveyor to lift the rounds into the honeycomb-like storage racks in the front of the superstructure. A ceiling plate above the two racks can be unbolted and opened to allow the racks to be winched out of the vehicle. Pantsir-S1 fire control system includes a target acquisition radar and dual waveband tracking radar, which operates in the UHF and EHF waveband. Detection range is 32-36 km and tracking range is 24-28 km for a target with 2 m sq. RCS. This radar tracks both targets and the surface to air missile while in flight. As well as radar, the fire control system also has an electro-optic channel with long-wave thermal imager and infrared direction finder, including digital signal processing and automatic target tracking.

R) Reinforcements; Crews, duties and function.

2S19 crew of 5. G-6 crew 3. M109, 8 (Gun Commander, Driver, 3 x Gunners, 3 x Cannoneers) M109 (8) Paladin (4) The crew of the M109 consists of a section chief, driver, three cannoneers who prepare the ammunition, load, and fire the weapon, and two gunners who aim the cannon. The gunner aims the cannon left or right (deflection), the assistant gunner aims the cannon up and down (quadrant). The M109A6 Paladin needs only one cannoneer and two ammunition handlers for a total crew of six. M119 crew of 7. Pantsir-S1 Crew: 1 - 2 operators for the air defense system and 1 driver. PzH 2000 a two man crew, one of them enters the firing information.

General notes - Artillery gun chief makes sure right fuse setting, round and charge is used, keeps a log. This helps with accuracy/adjustments, maintenance, barrel ware, and inventories.

W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.

Secondary weapons; M109 .50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 machine gun 500 rounds, Mk 19 Mod 3 (40 mm) Automatic Grenade Launcher, or M60 or M240 (7.62 mm) machine gun.

P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;

Ranges, Max over all or max effective (could also include effective at what altitude) in meters for weapon rounds or (operational) miles for vehicles and aircraft. Minimum ranges, safety arming ranges for rounds or danger close for explosives in meters. Note suggested weapons be listed in order of longest ranges.

Speeds muzzle velocity for weapons, rates of fire max or sustained for weapons, mph max or acceleration for vehicles or aircraft.

Trajectories/envelopes Trajectories paths for rounds. Elevation and traverse or gimble limits for weapons. Flight envelopes ceilings climb rates or Angles of attack for aircraft.

Ammo/Fuels type’s and characteristic; warheads fuses casualty radiuses for weapons. Fuels and lubricates for vehicles or aircraft.

Capacity # of rounds in magazines or storage for weapons or gals/lbs of fuel for Vehicles or aircraft.

Causality radius armor Breaching and protection abilities.

Max ranges: AS-90 Range 48 miles. G-6 40 miles. PZH 2000 36 miles. 2A36 Effective range (OFS): 16 miles, (OFARS) 21 miles. M109 11 miles - 18 miles (with rocket-assisted projectile). The replacement of the 23 caliber long barrel with the M284 cannon 39-caliber barrel on the M109A5/A6 increased the range capability to 20 miles. M107. 20 miles. TRF-1 rg. 30km. 2S19 15 miles. M110 Its range varies from 10.5 miles to 20 miles when equipped with a rocket-assisted projectile. M119 7 miles (charge 7); 9 miles (charge 8); 11 miles (M913 rocket assisted projectile) or rocket assisted munitions RAMs the round flies for several seconds before rocket ignition, with M913 HERA Range: 12 miles, M760 HE Range: 9 miles. 2A45 (missile) 3miles, (APFSDS) 1 ½ miles, (HE) 7 miles. The gun can reliably engage targets 2m high at a distance of 1 ½ miles. Pantsir-S1 Gun Max rg: 4km. Pantsir-S1 missile Max rg: 12 miles controlled flight.

Minimum rg. G-6 3000 meters. Pantsir-S1 Gun Min rg: 0.2 meter. Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum range: 2640 feet.

Max operational range 2S19 300 miles M109 250 miles. Road speed; G-6 55 mph wheeled vehicle. 2A45 Towing vehicle: Ural-4320 (6 × 6) truck, MT-LB multipurpose tracked vehicle, Towing speed: (49.7 mph) (in APU mode) 14 km/h (8.69 mph). 2S19 36 mph. M109 35 mph. 2A45 (in APU mode) 31 miles.

Muzzle Velocity 2A36 1850-3200 fps. M107 3000 fps. G-6 3000 fps. Pantsir-S1 Gun 960 m/s

Rates of fire, maximum, sustained,

2A45 6-8 rds/min. 2A36 6 rounds per minute. M109 3 round burst in 15 seconds, 4 round/min maximum for 3 minutes, 1 round/min sustained for one hour. Afterwards one round every 3 minutes. M119 6 rounds/min max; 3 rounds/min sustained, capable of firing up to 400 rounds per day. The Paladin can halt from the move and fire within 30 seconds with accuracy equivalent to the previous models when properly emplaced, laid, and safed--A process that required several minutes under the best of circumstances. M110 3 rounds per minute when at maximum. M110and 1 round per 2 minutes with sustained fire.

Pantsir-S1 Gun Max 2,500 rounds per minute per gun.

TRF-1 3 round burst 6rpm. Casings combustible improves rate of fire nothing to extract.

Elevation and traverse 2A36 elevation -2 to +57 degrees Traverse -25 to +25 degrees. 2A45 Elevation/depression: +25/-6º Traverse: 360º M107 elevation from - 2° to + 65° and in azimuth on 30° on the right and on the left.

M119 Elevation -100 to +1244 mil. TRF-1 Traverse 445 mil left 675 right.

Trajectories/envelopes.

Pantsir-S1The combined gun-missile system has an extremely low altitude engagement capability (targets as low as 15 feet AGL can be engaged by this system). Pantsir-S1 Gun Minimum altitude: 0 meter AGL Pantsir-S1 Gun Maximum altitude: 3 km. Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum altitude: 15 feet AGL. Pantsir-S1 missile Maximum altitude: 10 miles.

Ammo types and characteristics;

2A36 can fire shots especially developed for separate shells and propellant cartridges. - VOF39 with a fragmentation shell OF-29, this shell weighs 100 lbs and contains 15 lbs explosives (A-IX-2). - ZVOF86 with the active-reactive shell OF-59, which can destroy targets at ranges up to 15-17 miles. Atomic munitions of up to 0.1-2 kilotons (these are not legal) - cluster ammunition shell 30-13 with cluster bombs, smart munitions, active and passive radio jamming, anti-tank and smoke shells. 2A45 uses the same split ammunition as the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks. With an additional piece of equipment of the 9S53, laser guided projectiles like the Svir or 9K120 Reflecks can be fired. G6-52 ammo capacity 45 rounds and 50 charges. Projectile wt. 9kg.. Fire on the move. From its position it can cover area of 1700km. M107 Fired a 174-pound projectile. M109 Projectile weights 98 pounds. Normal ammo carried 30-40 rounds. (40 rounds, 64 charges). The M485 Illumination round burns for 120 seconds. Approximately 600 meters above the ground and illuminate an area of approximately 1000 meters. M110 The 8-inch howitzer fired a 200-pound projectile. M119A1 fires all standard NATO ammunition as well as special rocket-assisted projectiles. The 105 mm projectile and the propelling charge are loaded separately. M1 High explosive, M314 Illuminating, M60/M60A2 White phosphorus (smoke), M913 HERA, M760 HE.

Pantsir-S1 Gun Projectile weight: 0.97 kg. Ammunition: a variety of ammunition - HE (High Explosive) fragmentation, fragmentation tracer, armor-piercing with tracer. Ammunition type can be selected by the crew depending on the nature of the target.

PzH 2000 AGM, using 155mm GPS guided rounds (like the new U.S. Excalibur), would be able to fire one or two rounds, and get away before counter-fire could arrive. The turret capacity 30 shells and propellant charges.

TRF-1 Fires all 155mm ammo.

Causality radius,

M109 150’ – 300’ max.

Armor breaching and protection properties.

Note on average a 155 mm projectile's ability to penetrate concrete (38 inches).

PzH 2000 most of the weight (55 tons) is armor, to protect the gun from enemy counter-fire.

Capacity

TRF-1 Ammo tractor 56 shots 32 on pallet 24 in rack. Pantsir-S1 Gun 700 rounds per gun.

Pantsir-S1 missile Maximum speed (after 2s in boost phase): 4000 fps.

Pantsir-S1 missile Minimum speed: 2300 fps (deceleration in sustainer stage is 120 fps per ½ mile)

Pantsir-S1 missile War head 35 lbs.

Excalibur means 80-90 % less ammo has to be fired, resulting in less wear and tear (and less time needed for maintenance), and less time replenishing ammo supplies, and more time being ready for action.

E-WAR example; Rockets and missiles;

I) Unit I.D. designation aka, nicknames. Note classification is detailed under the second (U).

B- 12 107 mm rocket. B-21 122 mm rocket. BM-30 MLRS. ZelZal-2.

Haseb Iranian rocket, 107mm 5.5 mile range and a 15lb warhead. Note B-12 has 3lbs of explosives.

Arash Iranian rocket, 122mm 11 mile range and a 40lb warhead. Note there are two types one a little longer.

Oghab Iranian rocket, 230mm 25 mile range and a 150lb warhead.

Fadjr 3 Iranian rocket 240mm 30 mile range and a 100lb. warhead.

Khaibar-1 Iranian rocket 302mm 90 miles range and a 220 lb warhead.

Fadjr 5 Iranian rocket 333mm, 50 miles range and a 200 lb. warhead.
Shahin I, Iranian rocket 333mm, 8 mile range and a 400 lb. warhead.

Shahin II, Iranian rocket 333mm, 12 mile range and a 400 lb. warhead.

S) Numbers, manufactured, available. BM-30 Russian: 300 in 2001(100 in 1995), Algeria: 18 systems in 1999. India: 38 systems to be delivered by 2008 and additional 24 systems by 2010.Total cost $750 million. Kuwait: 27 systems in 1996. Turkmenistan: 6 on order Belarus: 48 system in 1990 Ukraine: unknown number.

Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording.

Weight Fadjr (900 pound) 333mm (one ton). Zelzal 2 3.5 tons. B-21 150 lbs 220 mm Syrian model about a third of the weight of rockets like this are the explosive charge in the warhead. B-12 40 lbs

Width

Length B-12 33 inch, B-21 9 feet.

How B-12 normally fired, from a launcher, in salvoes of dozens at a time, when used individually, it is more accurate the closer it is to the target. And is very popular with guerillas and terrorists because of its small size and portability. Fadjr rockets brought into Lebanon are believed to have come in individually, to be fired from locally built launchers. ZelZal-2 is moved, and launched, on a specially designed heavy truck.

L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.

B- 12 Russian. B-21 Russian. BM-30 Russian, Algeria, India, Kuwait, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Ukraine.

ZelZal-2 Iranian.

B-12 this design has been copied by many nations.

BM-30 Smerch (Tornado) or 9K58 is a 300mm multiple rocket launcher.

Photo edited

Fadjr rockets both 240mm and 333mm are normally mounted on modified Mercedes-Benz 2624 15 ton trucks.

ZelZal-2 (version of the 40 year old Russian FROG missile) 610mm

T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.

E) Equipment tools, machines used for maintenance, Periphery devices/scopes.

R) Crew transportation and platform vehicles ships or aircraft. Performance and dimensional details are located under other categories.

BM-30 3 men

W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.

P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;

Speeds muzzle velocity for weapons, rates of fire max or sustained for weapons, mph max or acceleration for vehicles or aircraft.

Trajectories/envelopes Trajectories paths for rounds. Elevation and traverse or gimble limits for weapons. Flight envelopes ceilings climb rates or Angles of attack for aircraft.

Ammo/Fuels type’s and characteristics; warheads fuses casualty radiuses for weapons. Fuels and lubricates for vehicles or aircraft. Capacity # of rounds in magazines or storage for weapons or gals/lbs of fuel for Vehicles or aircraft.

Casualty radius armor Breaching and protection abilities.

Range Zelzal 2 range of 200 kilometers Zelzal 2 with strap-on inertial guidance systems CEP of 100 m.

FROG unguided, rocket, with a range of about 65 kilometers. FROG spun rapidly after launch, stabilizing its trajectory, and a CEP 800 meters. BM-30 42 miles and 54 miles. Fadjr 5 range of 50 miles. 220mm Syrian model, with a range of 39 miles (65 kilometers). Fadjr 3 range of 30 miles. B-12 3.5 miles. B-21 range 20 kilometers. (WW II Russian design. 122mm range of 20 km and a 13 pound warhead) There were also a number of longer range 122mm rockets, 30 kilometers. Apparently, this model had the same 13 pound warhead, and achieved its increased range by being longer and heavier. B-21 unguided not much better accuracy than the 107mm. Haseb 107mm 5.5 miles.

Rates of fire, BM-30 Emplacement Time: 3 min, Displacement Time: 2 min, Launch Rate; Salvo Time: 12 rounds in 38 seconds. Reload Time: 20 minutes.

Ammo types/warheads/fuses, BM-30 Cluster warhead # 72 bomblets. Also thermobaric, frag etc. B-12 3 lbs of explosive warhead. 220mm Syrian model 90 pound warhead. Zelzal 2 1000 lbs warhead. Fadjr 3 40-110 lbs warhead. Fadjr 5 200 pound warhead.

Capacity; Launcher: 9A52-2, 300-mm, 12 tubes. Fadjr there are either twelve 240mm (900 pound) rockets or four 333mm (one ton) rockets.

E-WAR example; DIRECT FIRE WEAPONS; AAA cannons, Grenade launchers, Heavy machine guns.

I) I.D. designation/ AKA, nicknames, classification. Note classification is detailed under (U).

2K22 Tunguska/ZSU 30-2. ZU-23-2. S-60 and Type 59.

S) Numbers, manufactured, available. Dimensions; Weight/loads/density/mass. Width/track. Length. Height/ground clearance/fording. Note with weights weapons are list from heaviest to lightest.

Weight: ZU-23-2 in firing position 0.95 tons. Width: ZU-23-2 in firing position 2880 mm. Length: ZU-23-2 in firing position, 4570 mm. Height: ZU-23-2 in firing position 1220 mm

How ZU-23-2 can be prepared for firing from the march position in 30 seconds and in emergency can be fired from traveling position. The weapon is aimed and fired manually, with the help of a ZAP-23 optical-mechanical sight which uses manually entered target data to provide some automatic aiming. It also has a straight-tube telescope for use against ground targets such as troops and lightly armoured vehicles.

2K22 Tunguska/ZSU 30-2 It is designed to provide day and night protection for infantry and tank regiments against low-flying aircraft and helicopters in any weather condition

2K22/ZSU 30-2 wt 3400kg. op rg 500 km, sp 65km.

L) Locations where are they manufactured, stored, Training ranges or schools. Users of the weapons i.e. nation.

2K22/ZSU 30-2 Belarus, India - 66 - 92 2K22M/M1 ordered in 1996 (24-50 2K22M), 2001 (14 2K22M) and 2005 (28 2K22M1), Morocco - 12 2K22M1 ordered in 2005, Burma – Unconfirmed, Russia - 256 2K22M/M1

Ukraine. S-60/Type 59 Ru./CIS and 40 other nations. ZU-23-2 Ru./CIS and 40 other nations.

2K22 Tunguska (Russian 2К22 "Тунгуска" - Tunguska River) Its NATO reporting name is SA-19 Grison, aka ZSU 30-2 in the 1980s it is a Self Propelled AAA with a surface-to-air gun and missile system. variants 2K22M1

2K22/ZSU 30-2

Photo edited

S-60/Type 59 57mm x 348mm asp, AAA Ru. And China.

S-60/type 59

ZU-23-2, better known as ZU-23, is a towed Soviet short-range air defense cannon. 23mm 87.3 calibers Barrel length: 2010 mm. Variants; ZSU-4 23 Shilka quad gun self propelled version with four cannons.

ZU-23-2

T) Date and time information acquisitioned and last updated. History of research and development. History of maintenance records and reliability statistics.

2K22/ZSU 30-2 1982-present in 2003 the Russian armed forces accepted the Tunguska-M1 or 2K22M1 into service.

S-60/Type 59 1950. ZU-23-2 entered service in 1960

R) Reinforcements; Crews, duties and function.

Crew: ZU-23-2 (6 crew) It mounts two 2A14 23 mm auto cannons on a small trailer which can be converted into a stationary mount for firing the guns. 2K22/ZSU 30-2 crew 4

W) Weapons secondary and defensive, systems for platforms.

P) Performance, operational statistics of platforms and main weapons;

ZU-23-2 Armament: two 2A14 Afanasyev-Yakushev 23 mm auto cannons.

Effective range: ZU-23-2 2 – 1.5 miles. S-60/Type 59 6km radar guided, 4km optical guided. WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm max 5.5 miles, effective surface 2.5 miles.

Effective altitude: WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm air rg. 3km max altitude 6km. Armor pent. 50mm at 500m, 30mm at 1km. ZU-23-2 Vietnam AAA effective range ¾ miles. S-60/Type 59 ¾ -1 mile.

Muzzle velocity: S-60/Type 59 3300 fps. ZU-23-2 3000 fps. WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm, 2900 fps.

Rate of fire; Cyclic: ZU-23-2 2,000 rpm, Practical: ZU-23-2 400 rpm, WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm 200 rpm.

S-60/Type 59 100-120 rpm.

Ammunition; ZU-23-2 Projectile weight: 178 g, BZT Armor Piercing Incendiary Tracer (API-T) rounds

OFZ High Explosive Incendiary Tracer (HEI-T) rounds.

WWII Ru. 37mm x 252mm Round wt. 1.50 kg. Explosive 35gm.

2K22/ZSU 30-2 Variety of missile, basically 8km rg. With altitude of 3500 meters.

2k rounds of 30mm ammo can be carried. . The dual 2A38M 30 mm cannons are fired alternately. They have a combined rate of fire of between 3,900 and 5,000 rounds per minute (1,950 to 2,500 rpm for each gun), and have a muzzle velocity of 960 m/s. Bursts of between 83 and 250 rounds are fired as determined by the target type, with an engagement range of between 0.2 and 4.0 km and to an altitude of 4 km. HE-T and HE-I shells are used fitted with a A-670 time and impact fuze and the cannons can elevate and depress to +87 to -10 degrees. Studies were conducted that demonstrated that a 30 mm cannon would require 2-3 times fewer shells to destroy a given target than the 23 mm cannon of the ZSU-23-4, and that firing at a MiG-17 flying at 300 m/s, with an identical mass of 30 mm projectiles would result in a kill probability of 1.5 times greater than with 23 mm projectiles. An increase in the maximum engagement altitude from 2,000 to 4,000 m and increased effectiveness when engaging lightly armored ground targets were also cited additionally the system should have a reaction time no greater than 10 seconds compared to the reaction time of missile-based system, approximately 30 seconds. The 2K22 has two primary modes of operation, radar and optical, in radar mode the target tracking is fully automatic, with the guns aimed using data from the radar. In optical mode the gunner tracks the target through an 8 x magnification (8 degree field of view) stabilized sight 1A29M, with the radar providing range data.

The M1 introduced the new 9M113-M1 missile which made a number of changes allowing the 2K22M1 to engage small targets like cruise missiles by replacing the 8 beam laser proximity fuse with a radio fuse. Additional modification afforded greater resistance to IR countermeasures by supplementing the missile tracking flare with a pulsed IR beacon. Other improvements included an increased missile range to 10 km, improved optical tracking and accuracy, improved fire control co-ordination between components of a battery and the command post. Overall the Tunguska-M1 has a combat efficiency 1.3 - 1.5 times greater than the Tunguska-M.

The Tunguska family was until recently a unique and high competitive weapons system, though in 2007 the Pantsir gun and missile system entered production at KBP, a descendant of the Tunguska the Pantsir system offers even greater performance than its predecessor.

Mortars capable of 30 rpm. 60 mm wt 50 lbs, shell wt 10 lbs, 1 ½ lbs explosive charge. Range 3 km. muzzle velocity 500’ps. Note with 60 mm your hope is to hit something flammable. 81 mm wt 100 lbs, shell wt 12- 15 lbs at max range 3-4 km. Muzzle velocity 211mps 600 ‘ per second. 15-25 rpm, 4 lbs explosive charge. 120 mm wt 700 lbs, shell wt 33 lbs 6 lbs explosive charge. Range 6-10 km. Other muzzle velocities, 240 mm 362 mps /40 mm 250 ps. Rockets; Arash 12 mile range Katusha 10 miles range 10’long 120 lbs 122 mm. Fajr 3, 30 mile range 3 Fajr 5 50 mile range. 200 mm Zalzal 150 mile range. Rocket motors solid metal becomes penetrating projective upon impact c-802 100 mile range. WWII armed grenades after lunch would leave a trail of smoke to target. Report Vs impact sounds, holding round at muzzle, timing release. High drag devices to shorten mortar rocket range or stir around obstacles this with rockets too. Aircraft canon 30mm gun systems were very lethal and destroyed targets at ranges out to 4 kilometers when accurate.

USS Wisconsin crew member saying the 23 inch gun shells would take about 40 seconds to travel the 23 miles to target. Note that’s about two seconds per mile.

weight for the M240 with spare barrel, A-bag, tripod, and flex mount is 58.5 pounds. A squad of 2 MGs firing at the rapid rate for 1 minute will expend 200 rounds of 7.62mm ammunition weighing 14 pounds.

Appendix Patrol order part A

Drift formula objects usually fallow aircraft for 300’ before being effected by wind. Aircraft height in feet multiplied by wind in knots multiplied by a constant of three for bundles, four for troops. Dispersion formula ½ of aircrafts speed in knots multiplied by departure time in seconds gives area needed on ground in meters. Distance Formula (D = RT). Used to compute DZ length. (D is the required length of the DZ in meters; R is the ground speed of the aircraft in meters per second; and T is the time required for the aircraft to release its cargo.) To use this formula, some conversions are required. Airspeed to Ground Speed. Aircraft’s airspeed (expressed in knots) ground speed (expressed in meters per second) (knots x .51). Round up the answer to the next whole number. Multiply (knots x .51) (1 knot equals .51 meter per second). Drop speeds for different types of aircraft drop speeds: UH-1 50 to 70 knots, UH-60 65 to 75 knots, CH-46 (USMC) 80 to 90 knots, CH-53 (USMC) 90 to 110 knots, C-5/130/141/17/KC-130 130 to 135 knots (personnel) 150 knots—optimum 130 knots for all loads (door bundles, CDS, and heavy equipment). Time Over DZ Requirement. Allow 1 second for each paratrooper to exit the aircraft; do not include the first paratrooper. Paratrooper may exit both doors simultaneously. The door with the most paratroopers is used to calculate the time required. Allow 3 seconds per bundle to exit; do not include the first bundle. EXAMPLE: D = RT What length DZ would 8 jumpers require when jumping from an aircraft flying at a drop speed of 90 knots? Step 1: Solve for R (90 knots x .51) = 45.90 meters per second. Step 2: Solve for T: number of jumpers x 1 - the first jumper (8 x 1 - 1) = 7 seconds. Step 3: D: 45.90 meters per second x 7 seconds = 321.30 meters. Always (round up) to the nearest whole number. Time Formula (T = D/R). Used by JM if a DZ is less than the required length, solving this formula provides the seconds required to exit jumpers over the DZ in one pass. (T = time) meter length of DZ, divided by meters per second). Is the time the aircraft is over the DZ in seconds. Any fractional answer is rounded down to the next whole number. (D = length) of the DZ in meters, and (R = ground speed) rate of the aircraft in meters per second. EXAMPLE: T = D/R How many paratroopers from a CH-47 (drop speed of 90 knots) can land on a 750-meter DZ each pass? T = Number of paratroopers. D = DZ length is 750 meters (given). R = Airspeed is 46 meters per second (90 knots x .51 = 45.9; round up to 46). Solution: T = D/R (D ÷ R). D/R = 750 meters divided by 46 meters per second = 16.3 seconds. T = 16 seconds (round down). 16 seconds over DZ x 1 Paratroopers per second + 1 paratrooper (the first paratrooper exiting the aircraft does not affect the number of seconds spent over the DZ) = 17 parachutists. Thus, 17 parachutists per pass can land on the 750-meter DZ. MT-1X canopies 35 mph of forward speed with on wind. So theoretically you could land in winds a little stronger. MX-360 range over water about 5 miles. World record; nine mile flight path four minutes.

SP parachute drops of supplies. Accuracy on average 185 meters of the aim point. JPADS (Joint Precision Airdrop System) and ICDS (Improved Container Delivery System). Both of these are systems whereby pallets of supplies are equipped with GPS, and mechanical controls, to guide the direction of the descending parachute for pinpoint landings. With the new delivery systems, it's possible to do night drops, which is preferred when you don't want to alert nearby enemy troops. 185 meters is usually very far off for JPADS as 10- 20 meters is more common. From altitudes of 20,000ft and 5 miles away the loads can be dropped. Far from any antiaircraft fire. Water, ammunition, artillery shells, pizza and even artillery itself can be dropped, and even during the middle of the night or cloudy weather.

SP 2000; British officials and RAF personnel are in California to test HAPLSS (High Altitude Parachute Life Support System). This is designed to allow Special Forces to jump from a plane at high altitude and glide several miles (carrying oxygen to breathe) across an enemy border.

Appendix Patrol order part B

Parachuting the dispatcher well order, port stick to stand up (Group of jumpers are called a stick) them he takes up his place by the fuselage door. You leaned forward, picked up your reserves and clip them into place. Next, you have to hook up the static line, a belt of thick webbing to the bar over head. Check equipment, just above rucksack is a control board containing an altimeter and campus. Tape is placed over the muzzle of weapons, to prevent dirt getting into barrels when you land, hand guards taped together to make sure they stay up. Cover all sharp edges to prevent personal injury in case of a bad landing. Main kit is strapped to your harness by rope 15’ long, coiled on your hip, to land with all that weight on your legs, would have broken them. You jettisoned meaning lowered it just before landing. Action stations is the next order. Red light, four seconds, green light you go. In the saddle properly positioned in free fall. (HAHO) There is no sensation of falling. The slipstream carries you down sideways and within a second or two your canopy opens. You pull down on the back lift webs in order to steer. There isn’t a sound, not the faintest breath of wind. (HALO) First wind you encounter is the flow from aircraft if you’re not in the saddle it can start you flipping. If you’re leaning left or right you can start a flat spin. When falling keep your head back. Free falling you maneuver against air resistances. Air at altitude is not very resistant, it’s easy to loose control. Also at altitude jumper falls faster 180 mph instead of 120 -140 mph. With storms main concern for paratrooper is up drafts found around edges (good updraft maybe 1000 feet per minute). Every one in stick needs to pull ripcord at their proper free fall intervals to end up on ground at same point. Opening shock incredible, even when saddled up. Normal landing procedures same as that fallowed by aircraft. You started executing a tight spiral turn right or left to the base leg. Then for an into the wind landing turn again in the same direction. The last maneuver called turning final. Feet and knees together for landing. The parachute drags you slightly, roll on your back and press the release catch. The PX guided tour of the packing plant. Packers added to the silk canopies the minute knots which held everything in its place. The knots had to break during the descent to allow the canopy to deploy correctly. The PX has a skirt of mesh, it doesn’t look like much but it’s a life saver. Apparently the early Para’s kept on getting blown peripheries and piling in. The edge of the canopy got the wind under it and folded, reducing the amount of air inside. That led to a Roman candle, the skirt stops that. Russian roulette this happened if you came out directly above another paratrooper. His canopy captured your air. Your chute would collapse, and you would plummet to a position below him. Then the reverse happened. Your shoot inflated and stole his air. The process continued like this for the entire flight until one of you hit the ground. There are five percent casualties on every jump. Joke; you well find a special spirit amongst those who jump from the sky not found amongst penguins. The penguin is a flightless bird but you are the airborne.

APPENDIX DEF rule # 3

Driver’s taping foot to accelerator. Vehicles used to deliver ransoms low powered car, trunk cut out. Delivery man no shirt. Dump truck for – IFV. Russia during WW2 used dogs for tank killers; they were trained to associate tanks with food. Con- could not tell difference between types. Detonator rod stud up on back with graze fuse.

Castor oil and lacquer for making a clear film.

For design purposes, large scale truck bombs typically contain 10,000 pounds or more of TNT equivalent, depending on the size and capacity of the vehicle used to deliver the weapon. Vehicle bombs that utilize vans down to small sedans typically contain 4,000 to 500 pounds of TNT equivalent, respectively. A briefcase bomb is approximately 50 pounds, and a pipe bomb is generally in the range of 5 pounds of TNT equivalent.

Bomb damage assessment (BDA) for Avg. car bomb structural damage well accrue at 25’ radius, lethal injuries 100’ radius, severe injuries by fragments mostly glass 150’ radius.

Large truck bomb and typical 2k lbs GBU or dumb bomb. Structural damage 150’ radius, lethal injuries 500’ and severe injuries by fragments mostly glass out to 8-900’.

With building security, increasing stand-off also requires more land and more perimeter to secure with barriers, resulting in an increased cost.

For internal weapons, location is dictated by the areas of the building that are publicly accessible (e.g., lobbies, corridors, auditoriums, cafeterias, or gymnasiums). Range or stand-off is measured from the center of gravity of the charge located in the vehicle or other container to the building component under consideration.

Glass cause most fragment injuries, 40% within target building, 25-30% for side walk or adjacent buildings.

Shock wave inters windows the weakest points then pushes up on floors which are not designed to resist upward forces, and have large surface areas. As shockwave engulfs total building pressure is exerted on building from all directions.

Two phases of structural damage initial and progressive collapse.

When shock waves hit objects within line of sight they can be magnified up to 10 times as they bounce off.

Figures are for weight of explosives first then distance and finally overpressures. Placed in automobile 100lbs 50’ 10.0 (psi) 300’ 0.5 (psi), Vans 1k lbs 100’ 10.0, 200’ 2.0, 450’ 1.0, 800’ 0.5, Trucks wt 10k lbs distance 200’ pressure 10.0 distance 500’ 2.0, 1k’ 1.0 2k’ 0.5

Bomb Damage Estimates: Typical window glass breakage with incident overpressure of 0.15 – 0.22 (psi). Minor damage to some buildings 0.5 – 1.1 (psi), Panels of sheet metal buckled with 1.1 – 1.8 (psi), Failure of concrete block walls with 1.8 – 2.9 (psi), Collapse of wood framed buildings with 5.0 (psi), Serious damage to steel framed buildings with 4 – 7 (psi), Severe damage to reinforced concrete structures with 6 – 9 (psi), Probable total destruction of most buildings with 10 – 12 (psi)

Small Car bomb shrapnel hundreds of feet, fire ball 25’ diam. 50-70’ height

CBB hundreds of peaces shrapnel twice speed of bullet 13’ casualty radius.

Bouncing betty height of mans heart 38’ casualty radius

Clay more and other directional 600’ casualty radius

Two lbs of explosives 81mm mortar 6’ blast effective/casualty radius, 2k lbs bomb 75’MOAB radius 600’.

BDA bomb damage assessment. With after action report note location of unexploded munitions.

All items of IED must be removed from scene.

CNN Dragon missile rocket motor orange fire ball, TOW from Bradley wt fire ball.

AAA shell explosions lack flames, mortars or artillery shell too.

Phosphorus bomb there is a flash in the sky makes fizzing sound. It is a Chemical incendiary bomb burst in sky sending long white tendrils down on target.

“Judging by the small chunks of concrete it was probably a large 2k lbs”.

Holes in roof in the direction of retreating enemy covering there routes.

Katushya rockets 80 lbs with warheads at rear of rocket; impact produces small creator and large gray pattern with yellow and black streaks. Center of impact darker than surroundings.

Normally Creator diameter and depth are less with dry soil Vs wet. Shockwaves transmit threw wet clay are 50x more powerful than threw lose sand. IEDs can produce sandy craters rimmed with black. Area scourged with black shut and blood. Bone fragments, bodies burned to skeletons, small peaces and piles of skin. Heads flying off, and fingers used for I.D. Throats and lungs burned. Many KIA with no apparent signs of death reason multiple detonations of MRLS caused massive fluctuation of air pressure with in bombarded zone damages the lungs.

IED Initiation Systems:

Trip-Wire (pull); A wire attached to one or more mines to increase the activation area. Pressure on or breaking of the tripwire will activate the mine fuze. A tripwire is normally attached to a bounding or fragmentation-type mine. Often employed in a nuisance minefield, it is also used in the forward rows of anti-tank, anti-personnel, and mixed minefields.

Pressure; Some of the more common and older mines use pressure-sensitive plates or hammers to initiate the explosive. Pressure fuses are used for both anti-personnel and anti-tank mines.

Acoustic; Utilizes microphones to detect the approach of a vehicle. Usually the primary sensor will “awake” a secondary IR or laser sensor.

Infrared Sensors; Once activated, the IR sensor detects and tracks the target until engagement is complete.

Tilt-rod; With this type, there is a post or pole normally attached to a fuze mechanism on the top of a mine. Pressure against the tilt rod activates the charge by breaking or releasing a mechanical retaining device, thereby initiating the detonation chain.

Influence/Proximity; Activation of the mine is caused by the magnetic influence of a vehicle's mass. Employed primarily against vehicles, aircraft and ships; these mines include radar, infrared, magnetic, acoustic, and seismic.

Command-Detonated; These have the ability to be detonated remotely.

Double Impulse; This is usually an anti-tank mine that requires two separate pressures on the fuze to set off the detonation chain.

Chemical-Friction Fuze; This has a fuze in which substances are separated until required for action. After they are brought into contact and unite chemically, an explosion is produced.

Cover the sandbags with heavy conveyor belts or rubber matting to reduce secondary fragments.

Strive for uniformity of appearance between vehicles. Cross-load key personnel and equipment.

Claymore Tips:

Claymores are factory-packed “backwards;” i.e., to be emplaced from the firing position to the mine position, with the excess wire left at the mine. This is corrected by removing all the firing wire from the plastic spool, discarding the spool, re-rolling the wire in an “S” or “Figure 8" fashion, and replacing it in the bag to enable the mine to be emplaced first and the wire laid back to the firing position. The clacker with circuit tester attached is preconnected to the firing wire and stowed in the mine pouch. The unit commander must make the decision to either prime the mine before departing on the mission, or to only put the shipping plugs on the electric and nonelectric blasting caps to speed priming during emplacement.

Dual-prime each claymore for both electric and nonelectric firing. The time fuses should be pre-cut for 30-, 60-, or 120-second delay for pursuit/break-contact situations. However, the burn time on the fuse becomes undependable the longer the fuse is exposed to wet/humid conditions.

Waterproof your nonelectric firing systems.

Carry the claymore in the rucksack so it is immediately accessible and so that after breaking contact, it can be quickly armed and emplaced on the back trail (even while it is still in the ruck) to delay pursuers.

When placing claymores around your position (OP, ambush, RON, etc.), they should be emplaced one at a time by two men: one man emplacing the mine and the other standing guard.

Never emplace a claymore in a position that prevents you from having visual contact with it.

Because you only emplace a claymore where you can observe it, you may consider cutting your firing wire in half since you will not use more than 50 feet/5 meters of wire, easing emplacement and recovery and cutting weight.

Emplace each claymore so the blast parallels the team, and the firing wire does not lead straight back to the team position from the mine. If the claymores are turned around by the enemy, they will not point at the team.

Determine in advance who will fire each claymore and who will give the command or signal to fire.

Shaped Charge History, Charles Edward Munroe, discovered "The Monroe Effect" in explosives in 1885. He noted that explosives with a cavity facing a target left an indentation. The earliest known reference to the effect appears to be 1792, and there is indications mining engineers may have exploited the phenomenon over 150 years ago. The Monroe Effect was rediscovered by Von Neumann in 1911, but no practical applications were developed. In early 1997, Lawrence Livermore successfully tested a shaped charge that penetrated 3.4 meters of high-strength armor steel. The largest diameter shaped charge ever built produced a jet of molybdenum that traveled several meters through the air before making its way through successive blocks of steel. A Monroe-effect shaped-charge warhead can be expected to penetrate armor equal to 150-250% of the warhead diameter. Do to the “cutting” efficiency of a shaped charge (several times greater than that of bulk charges) there is a reduction in the amount of explosives needed.

(EFP) Explosively, Formed/Forged, Projectile/Penetrating/Penetrator Warhead. Note also self forging etc. A shaped charge is a concave metal hemisphere or cone (known as a liner) backed by explosives positioned between the liner and a steel or aluminum casing. A detonator is activated to initiate the explosives generating a detonation wave which collapses the liner and a high velocity metallic jet along with a slow moving slug are simultaneously formed. The jet properties depend on a range of alternative designs such as the energy released (size and type of explosives used). Or modifying the angle of the liner or varying its thickness, mass and composition, would result in a faster and longer metal jet within the void. The jets tip may travel as fast as 10 kilometers per second. Or (24,000-27,000 fps)

Shaped charge phenomenon; is beyond the scale of normal physics, which explains why its fundamental theoretical mechanism is not fully understood. The jet tip reaches 10 kms-l some 40 µs after detonation, giving a cone tip acceleration of about 25 million g. At this acceleration the tip would reach the speed of light, were this possible, in around 1.5 seconds. But of course, it reaches a terminal velocity after only 40 microseconds. The jet tail has a velocity of 2-5 kms-l so the jet stretches out to a length of about 8 cone diameters (CDs) before particulation occurs. The stretching occurs at a high strain rate, requiring the cone material to have excellent dynamic ductility at temperatures up to about 450°C. On reaching a target, the pressure developed between the jet tip and the forming crater can be as high as 10 Mbar (10 million atmospheres), several times the highest pressure predicted in the Earth's core. It is universally agreed that conical liner collapse and target penetration both occur by hydrodynamic flow. However, it has been established by X-ray diffraction that the jet is solid metal and not molten. Additionally, best estimates of jet temperature by incandescence color suggest a mean value of about 450°C, and copper melts at 1083°C at atmospheric pressure. So the following conundrum is the first confusion: The jet appears to behave like a fluid, and yet it is known to be a solid. One recent theory that would help explain this is that the jet has a molten core but with a solid outer sheath. The hypervelocity hydrodynamic impact (unlike lower speed KE penetration) results in a mushroom head penetration, such that the hole diameter is larger than the penetrator diameter. The dynamic compressive yield stress of the target is exceeded by a factor of at least one thousand times, so that only the densities of the target and jet materials are important. Both materials flow as if they were fluids and the penetration event can be modeled quite accurately using the Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow to give the well known hydrodynamic penetration equation. Hydrodynamic penetration begins to appear when the strike velocity exceeds a critical value, typically about 1,150m/s for current penetrators against rolled homogenous armor (RHA) targets. Full hydrodynamic behavior does not occur until the strike velocity reaches several kilometers per second, such as occurs with shaped charge munitions. At strike velocities less than about 1,150m/s penetration of metal armor occurs mainly through the mechanism of plastic deformation. A typical penetrator achieves a strike velocity around 1,500m/s to 1,700m/s, depending on range, and therefore target effects generally exhibit both hydrodynamic behavior and plastic deformation. A common feature is the importance of a high strike velocity to exploit the hydrodynamic penetration mechanism, which, in turn, is further improved by the use of longer penetrators with higher densities relative to the target. Explosively Formed Projectile (EFP) Wide angle cones and other liner shapes such as plates do not jet, but give instead an explosively formed projectile or EFP. The projectile forms by dynamic plastic flow and has a velocity of 1-3 kms-l. Target penetration is much less than that of a jet, but the hole diameter is larger with more armor sprawling. The concept of using explosive energy to deform a metal plate into a penetrator at high velocities offers a unique method of employing kinetic energy without the use of a large gun. Very often there is also a retaining ring to position and hold the liner-explosive in place. After detonation, the explosive creates enormous pressures that accelerate the liner while simultaneously reshaping it into a rod or some other desired shape. Several parameters in the warhead configuration must be redesigned to achieve an optimum configuration. EFPs can defeat the target at very long range. The projectile must be aerodynamically stable so as to strike the target within a small area and a small angle of obliquity. In the U.S., extensive work has focused on forming EFPs with canted fins, to induce spin-up. Current anti-armor ordnance employ explosively formed elongated penetrators. Such penetrators are generally one of two types: rearward folding or forward folding. In forward folding types a warhead containing an explosive charge drives the periphery of a metal plate, referred to as a liner, forward with an axial velocity greater than the axial velocity of the central portion causing the periphery to fold over and converge forward of the central portion and form an elongated penetrator. In rearward folding the explosive charge drives the periphery of the liner forward with an axial velocity less than the axial velocity of the central portion causing the periphery to fold over and converge rearward of the central portion to form the elongated penetrator. In these approaches, then, the axial velocity component is critical in determining the final desired shape of the penetrator and this is a well accepted technique. However, in certain applications, for example, where the explosively formed penetrator is delivered from the warhead assembly of a missile or projectile, the explosively formed penetrator encounters the skin of the missile or projectile during the critical earlier stages when the liner is being formed into the penetrator shape by the folding action of the periphery over the center. The engagement of the liner with the skin radically alters the axial velocities of the periphery thereby disrupting the folding and causes the penetrator to fragment losing its effectiveness. To avoid this, provision is made to remove the impeding portion of the skin using clearing charges or skin just prior to the liner folding action cutting devices.

In order to increase the penetrability, hollow charges differing from conventional hollow charges have also been developed in recent times. These charges can, for instance, comprise an auxiliary body disposed in front of or integrated with the metal cone of the charge so that upon initiation of the charge it generates a slug which follows behind the actual penetration jet and penetrates and enlarges the hole made by the penetration jet. Alternatively, the hollow charge may have a warhead with two complete hollow charges, so-called tandem hollow charges, which after the projectile is fired accompany each other as an integral unit during the greater part of the travel towards the target, only to separate at a predetermined distance from this and to continue towards the target at mutually slightly different velocities and hit with a sufficient interval of time to enable the charge which reaches the target first to detonate the explosive in any active armor so the latter charge penetration jet is able to work without disturbance and also is assisted by the penetration work already performed by the first charge. It has been observed that only a relatively small surface area is damaged when the impact is at an oblique angle. This strongly reduces cross section of the penetrating channel compared to the cross section of such a channel when a perpendicular impact occurs.

Copper cone - the jet makes holes, typically through 75mm (3 in) of mild steel or greater thicknesses of concrete or brickwork. It may be used for causing the detonation or deflagration of steel-cased ammunition without any risk of inadvertent disturbance of the target before firing. The usual explosive load is between 20 and 50g. EFP - A wide angled copper cone, essentially a slightly domed disc, generates an (EFP) which may be used to penetrate targets at greater ranges than the jet-forming cone. This enables the VULCAN to be used to disarm and disruptor devices. It punctures 10mm steel at a range of at least 1,500mm.

Aluminum cone- is able to deliver a powerful blow to shell. Dose not burn as fast.

Magnesium incendiary cone- The jet is less penetrating than that by copper but it is a less powerful initiator of detonation. It is used to penetrate even thick-walled shells or bombs and ignite the explosive or pyrotechnic filling. (Note IMO could it be that pyrotechnic is less explosive thus needs more powerful initiator). In this application it is much less likely to cause inadvertent high order detonation than other, more conventional, charges. It thus provides a reliable means of bringing about a “low order” deflagration event. The usual explosive load for this purpose is between 30 and 40g.

Water filled cavities- water is placed into a balloon then into the cavity. Able to penetrate steel-cased munitions with thicknesses of up to 10mm, and to disperse their contents with minimal risk of detonation.

A sophisticated heavy two-stage shaped-charge warhead is capable of piercing equivalent to 900mm of armor. A triple-shaped charge warhead offers 50mm more penetration. Even a small 440 gram shaped-charge explosive can penetrates more than 14 inches (35.6 cm) of armor. The M77 submunition's anti materiel capability is provided through a shaped charge with a built-in standoff, which can penetrate up to four inches of armor. The smaller submissions have a shaped charge warhead that penetrates 2.75 inches of homogeneous armor.

The Pentagon has formed a task force the Joint IED defeat organization (JIEDDO) its more than 500 members include red teams, who try to think like insurgents. Spent 5 billon $ in last three years and has a 4 billon $ budget this year. Navy EOD, China lake training base. Navy EOD 1800 members 15 mobile units. EOD team number 7 troops. Motto Initial Success or total failure. EOD term, 9 line an IED location report i.e. situation briefing. Three years ago practically every IED incident created some kind of casualty. Now the enemy must create six incidents to create a casualty of some variety. Note the last statement I believe was made in 2007. The insurgency did not start for about three mouths after the invasion and did not get into full swing for at least a year. So my Question is, how dose that statement mesh with these facts. 70% casualties in Iraq by IED in 2005. IED account for roughly 80% of US deaths up from 50% at the start of the year. 06/25/07. Maybe CNN has not reported the grate increase in total IEDs in Iraq. That would explain the casualty figures under such improved odds.

Iraqi munitions destroyed by coal forces 400 tons vs. estimated total in nation of 3.5 million tons located at thousands of sites, 2007. 400 car bombs c-span at mid 2006.

IEDs can’t be defeated by gadgetry. We have to go and find and kill the guys making them.

EOD -8 bomb system 70 lbs includes cooling system plugs into cigarette lighter for recharge. Talon Robot, Big brother to PAC bot. RPV is capable of operating under water. Mic-Lic Explosive line charge that can be shot out over mine fields etc. Dragon burn Vs blow pyrotecnique, blow torch anti mine system (like VULCAN system mentioned above with different cone materials) 2k degrees Celsius. Lite wt. non explosive anyone can operate it. No high order explosion from mine. Also the buffalo, counter IED vehicle and the Meerkat nine detector. Cougar V a 6x truck bottom hull 30 lbs TNT resistant. 2k attacks in Iraq no casualties. (Note again back to the figures).

Lonatron of Tucson Ariz. MFG of remote control vehicle, with a speed of 35 mph. Used high voltage surge of electricity similar to a lighting bolt to disable explosives at range of 1k yards. Note must use wire. Called JIN joint IED neutralizer. Number of units in Iraq 12. Alliant tech system of Edina Minnesota developing AF scorpion 11, demonstration system uses high power micro waves. Effective 75% of the time. JIN (?)% .

Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) AN/GLQ-16 AN/VLQ-9 AN/VLQ-10 AN/VLQ-11 AN/PLQ-7 Shortstop The Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) is a portable radio frequency jammer. The SEPS could be programmed to jam a specific range of frequencies. SEPS were also placed at VCPs in order to defeat any remotely controlled VBIED or suicide bomber wearing explosives. The Shortstop Electronic Protection System (SEPS) is an RF Proximity Fuse counter measure. The Shortstop battlefield electronic countermeasures system is capable of prematurely detonating incoming artillery and mortar rounds weapons with impact fuses slip through. The system could reduce casualties to ground troops by as much as 50 percent during the initial stages of an enemy attack. The AN/VLQ -9 or -10, systems demonstrated, in testing, the ability to significantly enhance survivability of troops and high value assets from indirect fire, proximity fused munitions. The prototypes were deployed for a limited period of time in Bosnia and were returned to contingency stock in 1997. Packaged in a suitcase-size case and fitted with a small multi-directional antenna, the Shortstop system can be activated and operational within seconds. Shortstop's passive electronics and operational features make it impervious to detection by enemy signal-intelligence sensors. In the near future, Shortstop will shrink in size, down to 25 pounds. Whittaker is currently under contract to build three new, smaller versions: portable and vehicle units, as well as a stand-alone unit. Warlock Green / Warlock Red The Warlock Force Protection System is a lifesaving countermeasure. Warlock has been effective in countering the threat of IED. The Warlock devices are modified versions of EDO's battle-proven "Shortstop" electronic protection system. Warlock Green emits a radio frequency to jam communications signals that detonate improvised explosive devices. EDO also manufactures a less sophisticated jammer called Warlock Red. Originally designed to defeat proximity fused indirect fire munitions, Warlock has a dual capability to deny the use of enemy modern communication devices. Warlock can be used individually or in groups to provide wide area coverage without mutual interference. The systems have three configurations—man-pack, vehicle mounted, and stand-alone.

Warlock Red is a low-cost jammer to counter specific threats that have been emerging in increasing numbers. Warlock Green is a more capable jammer used to address more sophisticated threat systems.

Mines present in 60 nations mostly Afghanistan, Angola, Mozambique, Eritrea, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Iraq, Somalia, Sudan, former Yugoslavia FRY Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Africa has the most of any continent. 20 million exist in the world, 2k WIA each mouth. 800 KIA out of WIA 250 k amputees. Mine manufacturing nations China, CIS, India, Pakistan, Italy, South Africa, FRY, CARS, Federal Republic of Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, US MAC mine action center facility asset in demining and survival assist efforts within nation. WW 2 CIS/USSR deployed 222 million. WW 2, 2k mines per tank lost. In Nam AKA destructors or garbage do to large numbers used. With 300 k used mostly in river 11k in Haiphong.

Probing with knife, it is placed in open hand secured gently with thumb only. Use 30 degree angle at 2”points, across 1 meter front. If you detect something remove dirt with hand. Always mark suspicious points.

Biological detection, insects like honey bees used. Tiny quantities of TNT linger in the air traces collect on bees and pollen. Hives are monitored to detect presents. Bacteriological detection genetically engineered micro organisms would recognize explosive compound. It is sprayed on ground or area of suspicion. If traces present produces light or fluorescent sign. Environmental cons weather. AKA purple grass changes color with presents of chemical. IMO could be used also to make enemy think area mind. Dogs tier quickly and windy days are bad.

There are 429 airports in US. Plans call for 70-80 explosive Detection machines to be installed at IAPs.

The grenade was live and had its pin pulled, but did not explode because a handkerchief wrapped tightly around the grenade kept the firing pin from deploying quickly enough.

APPENDIX DEF. rule # 5

Over all visual tips;

In mountains points of observation can be at great distances. Height or altitude is a real plus in the desert even vehicle height can help a great deal. Crewmen well stand on the very edge of the tanks gun barrel to see over the horizon. In the dessert sometimes you can see better at night than at mid day.

Mirages are optical phenomena that occur due to the refraction of light though heated air, rising from a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 6 miles from the coast. Mirages distort more in the vertical dimension and are more common when facing the sun. They make objects that are 1 mile or more away appear to move. They also blur distant range contours, so much that you feel as if you are surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as islands. 10’/feet of elevation above surface puts you above superheated air close to surface over coming mirage effects. Note 18 inches to three feet above surface aka the sniper zone. Objects at equal height can be invisible to each other up to 2 km range. Mirages can reveal things over the horizon, although they may be distorted to point of non recognition. Much like Sky mapping in the extreme north i.e. sky reflection of land or water leads in ice or patches of snow are visible in clouds. Image approaches perfection as stratus clouds reach uniformity. Visibility from 500-1000 feet of altitude, maximum on very clear day 25 miles, hazy day 3-5 miles. Average horizon, 52’ per 1’ foot of Alt. Another words observers get one mile per 100’ of Altitude, 52/100 miles per 1 mile of Alt.

In astronomy, roughly circular line bounding an observer's view of the surface of the earth where the sky and earth seem to meet. This is the visible horizon. At sea the visible horizon is a perfect circle with the observer at its center, (it averages about 2 ½ miles) but on land it is irregular due to topographic features. The distance to the horizon varies as the square root of the observer's elevation for small elevations; at four times the height the distance to the horizon is twice as great.

(DOD) In general, the apparent or visible junction of the Earth and sky, as seen from any specific position. Also called the apparent, visible, or local horizon. A horizontal plane passing through a point of vision or perspective center. The apparent or visible horizon approximates the true horizon only when the point of vision is very close to sea level.

Operating at night, there are 12 nights out of the year of complete darkness according to calendar. Add in weather in some areas of the world like Europe and it could be as many as one hundred. Your eyes may seem to play tricks on you at night. You cannot distinguish one color from another. Your depth perception is reduced.

Moon shadows - With moon angles of 23 to 60 degrees and illumination levels of 30 % or greater, coupled with the moon positioned to the front or side of the aircraft (approximately 9 o’clock-3 o’clock position), crews could pick up shadows and use the contrast for terrain definition. However, with the moon to the rear quadrants (4 o’clock-8 o’clock position), the moon shadows either could not be picked up or were difficult to see. This caused terrain blending, making it extremely difficult to discern increases/decreases in elevation sloping, small buttes, and hills.

Perception that light is moving a phenomenon called Autokenesis when you stair at light long enough in the dark it looks like its moving. The illusion of movement, which a static light exhibits when stared at in the dark, is related to the loss of surrounding visual references that normally serve to stabilize visual perceptions. Consequently, naturally occurring small eye movements are perceived by the brain as movement of the light. Under such conditions, the best thing to do is to begin a scan pattern to control the eye movement and thus control illusions. Try to find another light and shift your gaze back and forth between the lights.

Electromagnetic (Light) Spectrum is simply energy (light). Within this spectrum of energy or light you can find x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, cosmic rays, and ultra violet rays and infra red to name a few. Note list all in order.

The principal effect of IR is heat, the principal effect of Ultraviolet is chemical reactions. Also within the spectrum is visible light i.e. what we can see with the naked eye. Just beyond red visible light is IR light which is broken down into 3 different ranges: near IR, middle IR, and far IR. This is important to understand why some devices cannot be used in conjunction with others.

NVDs

Absorption during the day all inanimate objects absorb thermal energy from the sun to varying degrees. Metal objects have a much higher rate of absorption than wood, leaves, or grass; therefore, a metal object sitting in the sun will stand out more than the grass surrounding it.

Exposure the amount of time an object is exposed to thermal energy determines how well that object will be seen. Naturally, an object with a long exposure time will have absorbed more thermal energy than an object exposed to the same thermal energy for a shorter period of time.

Emissivity is the rate at which an object emits the thermal energy it has absorbed or generates. Usually, most objects that have a high absorption rate will have a high emissivity factor. Although the human body does not have a high absorption rate, it does have a high emissivity factor due to the fact that it generates a high amount of thermal energy.

Reflection items such as glass and water have virtually no absorption rate. Instead they reflect the thermal energy, which makes it very difficult to see objects through glass and water. Snow and ice have the same effect, especially during the day with no clouds present. The snow or ice reflect most of the thermal energy from the sun, so it will be difficult to acquire a good thermal image on objects that are on snow or ice and behind glass.

Thermo / Infrared vs. Light amplification / Night vision, There is a difference between the two. Often the media uses the terms interchangeably as if they were the same. Thermo vision is nothing more than a fancy I.R. which senses heat.

The TWS operates within the middle/far IR range. It is able to detect IR light emitted from friction, combustion, or from objects that are radiating natural thermal energy. Since the TWS and other thermal devices operate within the middle/far IR range they cannot be used in conjunction with image intensifiers or other I/2 devices at this time.

Lt. Amp. aka Image Intensifiers (I/2) Devices; I/2 devices include the AN/PVS-4, PVS-5, PVS-7A/B/C/D, and PVS-14s. As the name implies, image intensification devices are designed to amplify light. To be effective, some degree of ambient light or energy within the near IR range emitted from natural and artificial light sources most be available. When light enters the image intensifier tube, the light releases electrons, which the tube accelerates repeatedly until the light is much brighter. Under optimum conditions, 2^nd generation devices, such as the PVS-5-series, intensifies ambient light up to about 1,500 times. Third-generation devices, such as the PVS-7/14-series NODS, doubles that level of intensification. Modern equipment magnifies ambient light millions of times.

NVG looking across a body of water such as a stream or lake increases the capabilities of the scope. Snow is made of reflective ice particles Starlight is reflected off of the snow making it easier to see at night. Thermo/IR has greater range, can detect farther out. Can detect temperature differences on surfaces, to show where someone has been lying. With IR use barriers that you do not lean on. Or to place your body on for support to reduce residue signatures.

Light amplification/ NVG standard set up, human recognized at 500 m. small vehicles 1km. NVG gives you more detail for I.D. of image. Can detect disturbances on the surface better i.e. tracks in dirt. MOUT dust particles in air with Marines using light Amp. could show air currents especially inside rooms and indicate movement or drafts caused by an opened door. NVG/Lt amp.? the green fire of phosphorescence churned up in the wake of a ship. Ground shimmering with NVG. NVG term blobs. Human eye can detect more shades of green, this is why green is used for viewing monitors. Land warrior two inch eye peace, view equals 17” screen. Lt. Amp. makes it difficult to maintain normal night vision. Passive Light amplification equipment in MOUT is of no use in sewers, tunnels, or basements, where no natural light exists.

Rifle scopes with NVG capabilities are combined with laser targeting designators a little IR/laser beam that lights up the spot bullet will hit, dot only visible with IR/NVG. Devices that emit in near IR energy in a colliminated /calumniated? beam, which are used as aiming devices such as the AN/PAQ-4B/C and the AN/PEQ-2A. Since both the image intensifiers and aiming lasers work within the same range of near IR energy they are able to work in conjunction with each other. Marines engaging as team see all other Marine’s dots.

Aiming Lasers AN/PAQ-4-series and the AN/PEQ-2A, operate within the near IR range, and are seen through image intensification devices. The aiming lasers emit a highly colliminated beam of IR energy that allows for quick "point and shoot" capability at night. The aiming lasers cannot be seen with the unaided eye. Special attention must be given to the following:

10-Meter Boresight/25-Meter Zero. As aiming lights were being introduced to units, increasing attention was given to the difficulty in zeroing them to weapons. The basic problem with traditional 25-meter zeroing is that the beam of an aiming light "blooms" when viewed through NVGs. Because this "bloom" covers up the silhouette in the center of the 25-meter target, a precise point of aim is almost impossible to achieve when zeroing.

One solution to the 25-meter zeroing problem was the bore light. It allows zeroing without the use of ammunition. A 25-meter zeroing allows the round to hit somewhere within a 19-inch circle at a 300-meter target, not center mass of the target. With the bore light, the strike of the round will impact a target at 300 meters very close to center mass. The other advantage to the use of the bore light is that a 25-meter zero is no longer necessary with aiming lights; if the bore sighting procedures are done correctly, you will be able to engage targets out to 300 meters, dependant upon ambient light conditions.

If a 25-meter zeroing is to be conducted, modifications to the M16A2 zero target must take place. A 3-centimeter circle is cut out of the center of the 300-meter zeroing silhouette. As you align the laser with the 3-centimeter cutout, the bloom will disappear ensuring that your point of aim is center mass of the 300-meter zero silhouette.

Note multiple layers with 3cm wholes counters bloom and what else?

Laser invisible to eye, but you can feel the heat. Cons, with NVG no peripheral vision you feel cocooned, false sense of security. Also NVG/IR? Pipes looking like ditch. Or bottles (plastic/glass?) like artillery shells. Hour just before sunset to bright to use NVG to dark for eyes. High moon illumination - With moon illumination levels at 85-100 % the NVGs had a tendency to “white out;” that is, shut down due to the brightness. Lasers, lights, flares, explosions and muzzle flashes hamper both, can cause them to shut off.

In MOUT the many reflections form shinny surfaces can cause false images and hamper laser range finder and designators as well. Gloss paint reflects more with light Amp. Lighter Vs darker shades? Flat paints less, but more heat signature on IR. Once you start shooting inside buildings smoke dose become sensor problem for IR or LT. AMP. Using body system, this is having one Marine equipped with Lt. Amp. equipment, one not or one with Lt. Amp. and one with I.R. and a third party with neither. So you can complement each others unique capabilities. The point man wears a PVS-5/7 NVG and the slack (the man behind the point) uses a TIS. When two persons using NVGs in the passive mode look directly at each other, they will see glowing “cat-eyes” caused by retro-reflectivity.

You can use I.R. in the day light to see through smoke. Vision enhancement equipment can be used in day light hrs to reduce mirage effects. Cameras, I.R. Lt. Amp., are two dimensional. Also have limited fields of view. However Lasers and radar are three dimensional. Meaning they indicate depth. Light amplification and IR equipment reverse function switch, black and white in wt/hot or dark/hot and iron color, or false color too. Negative image, views etc. to counter deep shadows or marginal areas of vegetation. Temperature differences between shadows and sun lighted areas in mountains can be as great as 10 degrees. You can stay on edges. Some desert winter days like MTN warm in open area chilly in shade.

The thermal views are also occasionally hindered by a naturally occurring phenomena (radiation cooling) (clear nights) where the temperature of the earth heats or cools rapidly at sunset or sunrise and may interfere with the recognition and lock-on of the intended target. This involves the point at which objects either have taken on all the energy they can or have lost all the energy they had and the time before they start to radiate or absorb it again. Diurnal Cycle there are two times during the day when motionless objects (note IMO windy condition could also play a part) that do not generate their own thermal energy, such as trees, rocks, and man-made objects, become the same temperature as the surrounding air. This is known as the diurnal cycle. These times usually occur once in the morning and once in the evening. The specific times that this cycle will take effect is based on the time of the year, but it usually occurs shortly after sunrise and shortly after sunset. These two times during the day can be referred to as "crossover points." During the day, a motionless object will absorb thermal energy from the sun; the crossover point is the time when that object stops absorbing thermal energy and starts radiating thermal energy (night). As the night goes on, that same object will come to a point where it stops radiating thermal energy and will once again start absorbing thermal energy (day). During the diurnal cycle objects can be difficult to see.

Note could also have to do with dry low humidity mornings sun radiation heating objects quicker, also consider coupling with sane red sky in morning sailor takes warning etc.

What about conveyor belt surface (scrolls) that would renew a optimum type surface martial.

Note statement by Sgt. Michael “lucky” Locket; I scanned the area with IR but with all the Artillery shell, grenade, rockets, shrapnel, casings, fires, smoke, dust, rifles glowing, muzzle flashes.

Note for information on range see COE rule # 11.

Marines in groups with deep heat on them in patches, would this not look like shrapnel of bomb on the ground also MRE chem. heat units or winter hand warmers etc? Note cold blooded animal’s insect’s etc signature with I.R. sensors? C-4 Temp. 3k deg., Jet fuel 1800 deg., kitchen controlled burn (blue in color) 1300-1800 deg. Open flame uncontrolled burn (yellow or orange in color) 500 deg. Open flames at altitude different color. Temperature too

Adjustments rain, snow, fog, smoke, and the diurnal cycle are just a few environmental conditions that affect your thermal image. The TWS is equipped with a diopter focus ring, an objective focus ring, brightness knob, auto and manual contrast, and polarity switch that will allow you to maximize the capability of the sight.

Making the proper adjustments to your image intensification (I/2) devices is crucial to your ability to acquire and engage a target at night. Under optimum night conditions a Marine with 20/20 vision during daylight can expect no better than 20/50 with 2^nd generation NVGs and 20/40 with 3^rd generation. Marines with good adjustments (20/35 to 20/50) the same Marine with poor settings (20/60 to 20/70). With good settings Marines had a hit probability at 75 meters of 76 %; with poor settings hit probability at 75 meters dropped to 47 %.

NOTE: If the mounting bracket is permanently attached to the helmet, ensure that the nape strap rear bracket is also permanently attached (See TM 11-5855-306-10, AN/PVS-14). The use of the nape strap will prevent the weight of the NODs from pulling the helmet downward causing the NODs to rest on the bridge of your nose. The nape strap will allow for proper acuity/setting of the sight and will allow you to engage targets with more ease and accuracy.

Set eye-relief. Move the goggles so that the eyecups cover the eye but not so close that the eyepiece touches your eyelashes or glasses.

Set inner-pupillary distance (AN/PVS-7 series). Move each eyepiece until they are centered over each eye. Close one eye and make adjustments until the eye that is open is viewing a complete circle and not an oval. Continue to make adjustments to the other eye.

Adjust the diopter ring. When first making adjustments to the sight, start with the diopter focus ring i.e. adjust the diopter ring before adjusting the objective focus ring. The diopter focus ring will focus the display screen (raster) i.e. lens to your eye. This is best done with the objective lens cover closed. Simply adjust the diopter focus ring until everything on the display screen is clear and easily read. Close one eye and with the eye that is open take the diopter ring and turn in one direction until the diopter is totally out of focus. Then turn the diopter ring back the opposite direction until the display is focused to your eye. Follow the same procedures for the other eye if using the AN/PVS-7 series. No further adjustment to the diopter adjustment ring should have to be made. Note now you’re ready to adjust the objective lens focus ring to focus on the target. You cannot focus the sight to the target without your eye being focused to the display first.

Objective focus ring will focus the sight to the target. While looking at an object, turn the ring until the objective lens is out of focus and then slowly turn the ring in the opposite direction until the object becomes clear. Adjustments will have to be made for targets at different ranges i.e. adjustments to the objective focus ring will be based on the range of the object being viewed.

Variable gain control (AN/PVS-14 only) the AN/PVS-14 has a variable gain control that controls the illumination input to the eye. Keeping the variable gain turned up will cause your brain to form two separate images, one darker and one very bright. With the variable gain turned down to the point that both eyes are almost receiving the same amount of light, the brain will produce one image making it seem like both eyes are looking through the same sight.

Brightness is a dual-function knob that turns on the TWS and adjusts the brightness of the raster, and is used to refine the thermal image. Used in conjunction with the contrast knob, it helps combat the effects of the diurnal cycle, and other conditions that might require fine-tuned adjustment to the thermal image.

Contrast the contrast is a dual-function switch with an auto contrast and manual contrast mode. The auto contrast is used under normal operating conditions. The manual contrast is used under conditions other than normal such as during 10-meter bore sighting during 25-meter zeroing; during rain, fog, smoke, or snow; during the diurnal cycle; or when trying to obtain as much detail of a target as possible. Used in conjunction with the brightness knob, the contrast allows you to obtain the best possible thermal image.

Polarity the polarity switch allows you to select between white-hot or black-hot. When in white-hot mode, the hotter objects will appear white while cooler objects will have shades of gray to black. When using black-hot, the hotter objects will be black while the cooler objects will be shades of gray to white.

NVG also to contrast with back ground, sheets of light shining through rooms, caused by opened doors, windows or cracks? With IR to see liquids in tanks, the surface is hotter than liquids. Finely to improve viewing of monitors during day time hours. Note, Light shades turn dark, Vs. Note reverses of three prime colors Red, Green, Blue. Black light compensation switch mentioned in IR specs sheet? Ultra violet light reveals urine. With video could it switch from normal image to negative how could it be used? Focal point with digital sensors back grounds etc.??

Scanning NVDs have a 40-degree field of view leaving the average shooter to miss targets at 50-meter left or right. You must train to aggressively scan your sector of fire. Regular blinking during scanning relieves some of the eyestrain from trying to spot far targets. You will find that targets are easier to detect by acknowledging the flicker or movement of a target.

Field of View (FOV) the TWS has two operating FOVs-wide and narrow. The wide field of view (WFOV) has the least magnification, and is used for scanning. The (NFOV) has greater magnification. NOTE: When selecting a FOV, make sure that the FOV ring is turned completely to the left or to the right. If the FOV ring is turned only halfway, you will not be able to see through the sight. Also NOTE: Over-adjustment to the objective focus ring will lock the FOV ring to the point that the FOV cannot be changed.

Walking once a target has been located, you must be aware of the placement of the aiming laser. If you activate your laser and it is pointing over the target into the sky, you will waste valuable time trying to locate exactly where your laser is pointing. Also, it increases your chances of being detected and fired upon by the enemy. When engaging a target, aim the laser at the ground just in front of the target, walk the laser along the ground and up the target.

IR Discipline once a target has been located and engaged with the aiming laser, the laser must be deactivated.

Thermal Weapon Sight TWS is able to convert thermal energy that is reflected, radiated, or generated from an object. It is able to absorb all available light into the lens, and then filters out all light except for middle/far IR (thermal light). The TWS then converts the thermal light into an image and creates a video that is displayed on the raster for viewing.

Head cams give troops eyes in the back of their head.

Hummers at range of 1 km difficult to see, at 2km they can be just about unnoticeable these figures pertain to shrub country.

Guidelines for Drawing Sketches the following are guidelines when drawing sketches: Work from the whole to the part. First determine the boundaries of the sketch. Then sketch the larger objects such as hills, mountains, or outlines of large buildings. After drawing the large objects, start drawing the smaller details. Use common shapes to show common objects. Do not sketch each individual tree, hedgerow, or wood line exactly. Use common shapes to show these types of objects. Do not concentrate on the fine details unless they are of tactical importance. Draw in perspective; use vanishing points. To do this, recognize the vanishing points of the area. Parallel lines on the ground that are horizontal vanish at a point on the horizon. Parallel lines on the ground that slope downward away from the observer vanish at a point below the horizon. Parallel lines on the ground that slope upward, away from the observer vanish at a point above the horizon. Parallel lines that recede to the right vanish on the right and those that recede to the left vanish on the left (Figure 4-24).

THE END

APPENDIX DEF. rule # 7

Radios Urk-ten (An/urc-10) survival radio, transmitted and received on 243.0 megacycles known as guard channel (UHF)

When it is necessary to give long detailed instructions, such as guiding someone flying a helicopter, the instructor should release the button on his mike every few seconds in case the person receiving the info needs to talk.

Vietnam era USAF called it (243.0) Navy common and USN called it USAF common.

FM to talk to boots on the ground

SNS [social network sites] creates a larger attack and exploitation window, exposes unnecessary information to adversaries and provides an easy conduit for information leakage that puts OPSEC [operational security], COMSEC [communications security]

The length of time between the moment you shout and the moment that you hear the echo is determined by the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo.

Moving your hand side to side at a slow pace, creates longer waves, i.e. low frequency.

Faster movement from side to side, makes waves shorter but more frequent, generating a higher frequency. Lower frequencies travel farther, but are more subject to high latency that limits data flow. A higher frequency has a lower (better) latency, but it is limited in distance and penetration of objects such as buildings.

For example, your local FM radio station. If broadcasting on 103.5MHz, i.e.103,500,000 cps. The signal is heard all over your city, inside buildings with little interruption. Meanwhile, an AM station two states away is broadcasting on 1320 KHz, i.e. 1,320,000 cps. With the correct antenna placed outside, you can receive the signal with the added difficulty of needing to adjust your antenna.

As you can see, antennas are fundamental components to the transmission of radio frequencies. In many situations, a lower power signal transmitted using a good antenna can arrive at its destination with more accuracy than a high-powered signal transmitted using a poor antenna. Antennas are rated by the amount of gain (the increase in power you get by using a directional antenna) that they provide.

SP March 13, 2009: For five years, the U.S.M.C. has been using its own battlefield Internet, based on off-the-shelf equipment. Late last year, the U.S. Army tried out the marine approach, and found that it worked.

This all began when the marines went to war in Iraq in 2003. There they quickly discovered that their radio equipment was not up to the needs of fast moving mechanized warfare. That's understandable, as Iraq was the first time the marines ever had to advance so quickly, and so far inland, during combat. Taking this as the wave of the future, and lacking the money for a lot of expensive new communications gear, the marines came up with CONDOR (Command and Control on the Move Network, Digital Over the Horizon Relay). Basically, CONDOR equips each marine battalion with satellite telephone and encrypted wi-fi gear, as well as networking hardware for all sorts of marine radios. The satellite link means that no battalion is ever out of range of radio or Internet communication. Most marine radios are "line of sight" (FM) and are of limited range. When units spread out too far, they lose radio contact unless they have satellite phones. The marines got satellite phones and satellite based communications gear from the army during the Iraq campaign. This proved a lifesaver.

But CONDOR went one step further by establishing wi-fi nodes throughout the battalion area, and also collects and transmits data from the EPLRS (locator transmitters) that every vehicle carries. The problem with EPLRS was that it used a line of sight signal (unlike the army Blue Force Tracker, which used satellite communications). CONDOR transmits EPLRS data to all marine units in the area, thus allowing a division commander to see where all his vehicles and troops are, even if they are hundreds of kilometers apart. CONDOR also allows any radio in the battalion to use the satellite link to call anywhere in the worldwide marine communications network.

But what really got the army's attention was how CONDOR provided Internet connections for everyone in the battalion. EPLRS has Internet capability built into it, but troops don't always turn it on. During last years army test, the EPLRS Internet feature was heavily used, along with troposcatter radio (signals are sent straight up, and they bounce off the troposphere back to other radios) to connect EPLRS units that are not within line-of-sight of each other. As the marines discovered, this works quite well.

Everyone was happy, except the contractors and bureaucrats trying to get the JTRS radio system to work. Since the 1990s, this distance and communications problem, as well as the need for battlefield Internet, had been foreseen. A new family of radios (JTRS) were developed to deal with it. But JTRS underwent one delay after another, and won't be available for another year or two (a phrase that has been overused with regard to JTRS). So EPLRA can fill in until JTRS arrives. CONDOR and EPLRS are more examples of how new technology is being developed so quickly that the usual Department of Defense way of developing new gear is often overtaken by faster evolving civilian equipment. No one expected satellite phones and wi-fi to come to market as quickly as they did. But here they are, and they will fill in until the official solution, JTRS, catches up.

ESM Electronic support measures: Types of missions are maintenance, also to warn of and I.D. possible threats. Gather information by monitoring, and analyzing signals. Signals of deferent systems I.D. by frequency pulse width, repetition rate and aerial rotation rate. Equipment consists of scanners, bugs, radios, phones, microphones.

SP Sept 1999 The US Army has begun issuing the new Soldier Intercom System to elite light infantry units and will eventually outfit all infantry and many other units with it. The system consists of a small radio carried in a pouch on the soldier's web gear, and a headset (earphone and microphone) worn inside the helmet. Each squad of 8-10 men is given their own frequency.

SP; MSP or military smart phones what the army is looking for is a smart phone that can work off battlefield wi-fi and have sufficient encryption and ruggedness to survive enemy efforts, and general rough use, to shut it down.

Senior NCOs can much more easily poll troops by texting them to get current status of things like ammo, sleep, food or health. So the MSP would simply plug into the helmet headset. The army also has to deal with troops demand for iPod features (the most widespread "handheld computer"). The MSP would also be able to take stills and videos, and the troops like to carry favorite vids with them. Combining business and pleasure is not encouraged in the military, but the MSP will be a very personal piece of gear. It might even be able to use civilian cell networks as well, meaning that every troop will be issued one. The army might also pick an MSP operating system, like Linux, that would make it easier for the troops to more easily write software. Then again, maybe not, given some of the dodgy stuff that has already been written for existing smart phones. In any event, the army knows they are entering new territory here. But they have to do it, before someone, somewhere else, beats them to it.

Internet search engine surfer is identified by number but surfers usually searches for information on themselves. You go on line for information; you are welcomed as source of information. This is why AOL switched form subscriber base income to a free network system.

SP mail call internet shopping is big and a single mailing address here in the US is used. In 2006, the Department of Defense shipped 112,000 tons overseas. In 2007, that was up to 139,000 tons. This year, it's headed for a total of 180,000 tons. It costs the Department of Defense over half a billion dollars a year to move this stuff.

SP information warfare; title waiting for cybergeddon. First, there are three kinds of Cyber War possible. Right now, we have limited stealth operations (LSO), as Chinese, Russian, and others, use Cyber War techniques to support espionage efforts. China is the biggest practitioner, or at least they have been caught most often.

Next comes Cyber War only (CWO). This is open use of a full range of Cyber War weapons. No one has done this yet, but it's potentially less dangerous than firing missiles and unleashing tank divisions. It is believed that Russia indulged in this in 2007, when Estonia infuriated the Russians by moving a World War II statute memorializing the Soviet "liberation" of Estonia (which didn't want to be liberated by the Soviet Union.) Russia denied responsibility for the massive Cyber War assaults on Estonia, which nearly shut down the nations Internet infrastructure. Estonia accused Russia of being responsible, and tried to invoke the NATO mutual-defense pact. NATO Cyber War experts went to Estonia, and shortly thereafter the attacks stopped. Apparently Russia got the message that this sort of thing could escalate in something more conventional, and deadly.

Then we have Cyber War in support of a conventional war. Technically, we have had this sort of thing for decades. It has been called "electronic warfare" and has been around since World War II. But the development of the Internet into a major part of the planets commercial infrastructure, takes "electronic warfare" to a whole other level. Cyber War goes after strategic targets, not just the electronic weapons and communications of the combat forces.

A successful Cyber War depends on two things; means and vulnerability. The "means" are the people, tools and cyberweapons available to the attacker. The vulnerability is the extent to which the enemy economy and military use the Internet and networks in general. We don't know who has what Cyber War capabilities exactly, although China and the U.S. have openly organized Cyber War units, and both nations have lots of skilled Internet experts.

Vulnerability is another matter. The United States is the most exposed to Cyber War attack because, as a nation, we use the Internet more than any other country. That's the bad news. The good news is that if an attacker ever tried to launch a Cyber War by assaulting the U.S., it could backfire. This risk has to be kept in mind when considering what a Cyber War might do. Recall military history. The Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 actually backfired on the Japanese, by enraging Americans and unleashing a bloodthirsty response that left Japan in ruins. The lesson of the original Pearl Harbor is, if you're going to hit someone this way, better make it count. If your opponent is bigger than you, and gets back up, you could be in some serious trouble.

The big problem with Cyber War is that there has not been a lot of experience with it. Without that, no one is really sure what will happen when someone attempts to use it at maximum strength. But unlike nuclear weapons, there is far less inhibition about going all-out with Cyber War weapons. That is the biggest danger. Cyber War is a weapon of growing might, and little restraint by those who wield it. Things are going to get a lot worse.

Near space aka no mans land. It is fertile research area “it was surprising to us how many folks were out there”. The vertical dimensions 12 miles of altitude close to the internationally accepted upper limits of controlled air space, up to sixty-two miles altitude lower limits of space. Air to thin to support flight to thick for satellites to maintain orbit. Gravity also to strong. Pros- Compared to traditional space cost less money, there are fewer restrictions, R&D is reduced and technology is available off the shelf, over the counter. Systems come on line much faster. Low threat high pay off. Stealthy, above range of lots of threats. Twenty times closer to earth than LEO satellites, which have short window times. System more responsive and persistent than space assist. Terms persistent Vs. pervasive. Ex: Geo-stationary satellite persistent but not pervasive. Near space system unblinking for mouths/persistent, could be used for closer views/pervasive or as relay stations. Also to direct satellites as they come over horizon. Lighter than air vehicles, Dirigibles, balloons. Bio degradable vehicles and payloads. One con to system retrieval, note homing pigeon systems. 2001, 20 out of 60 predators lost most to pilot error or weather. Near space might have mirror to reflect ground or airborne lasers for harassment or kinetic damage of foe’s equipment in near space.

UAVs are controlled from remote locations via radio frequency (RF). Provide near or real time video of the battlefield transmitted to a controlling shelter and remote video terminals (RVT).

Primary missions; surveillance is either a close range within 50 - 200 kilometers or endurance category of anything beyond. reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA), in support of intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB), situation development, battle management, battle damage assessment (BDA), rear area security, and command and control (C2). Can perform missions, which are unsafe for manned aircraft. Supposition is that newer, stealthy versions may even be able to be used as strategic assets, dropped by aircraft near target country borders, sneak in at low or very high altitudes, take their pictures or gather intelligence, and then sneak back out to be recovered. Note nations would be less worried about being caught spying within target air space.

They should be used during the first critical days of a conflict. That is when air defenses are most numerous and aircrews’ inexperience in AOR. UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three “Ds”: Dull, Dirty, and Dangerous. Dull means long-endurance missions which, in the future, could mean for several days. Several autonomous UAVs have been fielded which can be given GPS-based and or INS-based navigational parameters and then are left to loiter and collect SIGINT, COMINT, photography, or real-time T.V. images. According to the tactical UAV concept of operations, it will fly 12 hours per day, with a surge capability of up to a maximum of 72 hours continuously. Manning being most critical factor. Surge operations come at a cost: the UAV is down for maintenance for 72 hours following the surge. Dirty means jobs, such as detecting chemical agents and their intensity. Dangerous missions are numerous two are deep reconnaissance and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD). Support combat search and rescue (CSAR). Adjust indirect fire and close air support (CAS).

UAV Employment over view;

B.S. term hot full missions.

Strike missions;

Recon;

Situation development;

Support IPB;

Communications relay;

Command and control;

Mine detection, NBC detection, laser designation/targeting and weather surveillance.

Rear security;

CSAR;

SEAD;

Weather Limitations;

Winds: Headwind of 35 knots, tailwind of 3 knots, and crosswind of 20 knots. Winds aloft of greater than 50 knots.

Lightning within 10 miles.

Ice.

Ceilings of 6,000 feet or less will prevent collection during mission?

MAV mini aerial vehicle, aka Dragon eye, max alt. 10560’. One con to system was the inability to fly below 100 feet. IMU inertial measurement unit allows it to hover, in 20 knot winds. Not audible above 100 meters. Color images, IR too. Stores up to 60 minutes of information. Monitor indefinitely when autonomous mode used unit can land behind enemy lines and act as ground sensor.

NANOS. DARPA wireless sensor network, project sensing and electronic systems, Wolf pack. Smart dust, self organizing etc. MEMS micro electro-mechanical sensor.

ECM Electronic counter measure. Missions, try to disrupt foe’s transmissions by jamming. Conduct bug sweeps, Infrared jamming modulated shutter device. Reflecting sun light onto antennas with mirror may disrupt or distort signal? Code breaking term frequency counts the number of times a letter accurse in the alphabet EX: (E) used x amount of times. Cops knowing who you’ve quit hanging with do to phone numbers you remove from call list.

ECCM Electronic counter, counter measures. Missions. Tries to ensure security of your own signals and Transmissions. Keeps tabs on enemies methods of countering your systems and comes up with a counter to them. Cooper wire mesh said to shatter signals when used in construction of buildings. Other materials? Note on construction of anti communication buildings steel and metal alloy etc wool as insulation. Should have false back ground machinery noises to keep building from being suspected or looking covert. Bug sweeps, when bug turned off it well not be picked up during sweep. Broadcasting your transmission just before or just off foe’s actual channel or station. Anyone toning in may not realize their not on the right station, because it’s so close on the dial. ECCM to ECM of transmitting just off actual station, mark the face of tuner and digital turners too. Poor signal- using bad station frequency etc. Foe will not expect or care to monitor. Dissimilar communication one talks by phone, reply message communicated by text, email etc. Radio vs. phone anti voice recognition? Whispering to counter voice signatures/recognition, reasoning your not using your vocal cords. Wireless communication used near hotels, embassy, TV. and Radio stations or freeways during heavy traffic, could be lost in the haze so to speak. Switch channels a lot, Short operating times, Transmit in short burst, package information techniques, and making use of codes. Communication repeater net work. System that repeats last 1/2 dozen transmissions your radio last received. If you missed them due to back ground noises or were not available for some reason, you can recall them. Walkie talkies with short range, low powered hard to jam.

Computer cracking Quantum cryptography – photon particle of light sent out ahead of info. If even looked at its lost /destroyed. Can’t be copied either. Not physically possible to mess with. Protected by the laws of physics even if crackers figure out the ABC of what’s being done. Code bilateral cipher one letter in block alphabet one in cursive. Block = As cursive = Bs, 1s, 0s etc. Codes Jan – 1 Feb.- 2 Mar. -3 April – 4 May – 5 June – 6 July – 7 Aug – 8 Sept – 9 Oct – 10 Nov – 11 Dec – 12. A1 B2 C3 D4 E5 F6 G8 H9 I10 J11 K12 L13 M14 N15 O16 P17 Q18 R19 S20 T21 U23 V24 W25 X26 Y27 Z27.

Some steps that may be taken to reduce the heat effects on radio equipment? Place a piece of wood on top of the radio. Leaving space between the wood and the top of the radio will help cool the equipment. Operating the radio on low power whenever possible will also help.

SP Oct 1999 the Marines have begun receiving their new Kawasaki 650cc (KLR650 or M1030B1) motorcycles, which are used by various units for recon and messenger duty. These will replace less powerful Kawasaki 250s. All 293 motorcycles are to be on hand by the end of 2000. Conversion from gasoline to diesel engines will begin in 2002.

COMMUNICATIONS

Transistor; transferring an electrical signal across a resistor, an electronic device similar in use to the electron tube, consisting of a small block of a semiconductor (as germanium) on which are placed three electrodes of which the emitter and the collector make contact at points very close together on one side of the block while a metal plate makes contact on the opposite with the operation of the device depending upon the peculiar conducting properties of semiconductors in which electrons moving in one direction are considered as leaving holes that serve as carriers of positive electricity in the opposite direction.

Electrodes; a conductor (as a metallic substance or carbon) used to establish electrical contact with a non metallic portion of a circuit (as in an electrolytic cell) a storage battery , an electron tube, or an arc lamp) see anode, cathode.

Emitter; one that emits; often, a substance or electrode that emits particles < radium is an alpha ~> < thermionic ~S). note not sure about notes passed alpha. Maybe in my short hand I was trying to write alpha wave?

Collector; a device (as an electrode) that collects moving electrons, the out put terminal of a transistor.

Resistor; a device possessing electrical resistance used in an electric circuit for protection, operation, or current control.

Atmospheres: Signal propagation. There is a direct relationship between the number of electrons present in the air and the electromagnetic frequency they affect. Cell phones well not work above 8k’? Radar is best below 10k’ and above nap of the earth. Since ionization accurse primarily because of incoming solar radiation the number of electrons increases with altitude. To a maximum limit of 185 miles where electron density is highest and the highest frequencies are refracted. (Refracted –bend). It’s not an even progression but accurse in layers. Some regions weaken distort or even disappear at night or in winter. The regions are D) 55 miles or below. E) 55-100 miles F1) 100-155 miles F2) 155-185 miles. Highest concentration of electrons, density is never grate enough to effect frequencies above 15 million cycles per second. AM radio is broad cased at 555-1.6 million cycles per second they are normally not refracted until (E) but in day light they are absorbed in (D) air denser and free electrons collide more freely, with heavier atoms and molecules than they do in the thinner air above. When such collisions accrue the electro-magnetic energy of the moving electron is lost not only to itself but to the radio wave. This weakens or disappears (i.e. dose not occur) at night how ever. When there are far fewer electrons and collisions in (D). Radio waves pass through unaffected until higher up, making reception of distant AM station possible.

VHF radio wave propagation

Electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines but the transmission process is modified by interaction with the earth's surface and by reflection, refraction and diffraction occurring within the atmosphere. The major source of modification of the paths of radio waves is the radiation related layers within the ionosphere. The process by which the signal (the fixed carrier frequency plus the information) is conveyed between the transmitter and the receiver is propagation. Radio signal energy loss attenuation increases with distance traveled through the atmosphere, or other materials.

Propagation of radio waves within the high frequency HF band (the 'short wave' bands between 3 MHz and 30 MHz, with 12 aeronautical sub-bands in the domestic and international HF networks between 2850 and 22000 kHz) is significantly modified by reflection/refraction within the ionospheric layers – a 'skipping' process which facilitates transmission over very long distances, while using low power and small antennas.

However propagation in the VHF band 30 MHz to 300 MHz, when using low power and small antennas, is chiefly in the form of a direct path, i.e. it is relatively unaffected by reflection, refraction and diffraction within the atmosphere; but is heavily attenuated by the earth's surface and readily blocked, diffracted or reflected by terrain or structures as experienced with VHF band TV reception. Therefore for good reception of VHF there must LoS between the transmitter antenna and the receiver antenna; and the transmitter radio frequency RF output energy must be sufficient that the signal is not overly attenuated over that LOS distance.

LOS distance between a ground station and an aircraft station, or between two aircraft stations, is limited by the curvature of the earth's surface, and dependent on the elevation/height of the two stations and the elevation of intervening terrain. The rule-of-thumb: the maximum direct path distance (the distance to the horizon) between an aircraft and ground station, in nautical miles, is equal to the square root of the aircraft height, in feet, above the underlying (flat) terrain. Actually it is 1.06 times the square root of the height but for our purposes that can be ignored. Theoretical LOS distance to horizon, Aircraft height (feet) verses Maximum LOS distance (nm) 10’/3.2nm, 100’/10nm, 1000’/32nm, 5000’/70nm, 10,000’/100nm.

Estimating the square root: mental calculation is easier if you ignore the two least significant digits of the height, then estimate the square root of the remaining one or two digits and multiply by 10. For example; height 3200 feet, the square root of 32 is between 5 and 6 – say 5.5 and multiply by 10 = 55 nm LOS distance. Another example; height 700 feet, ignore 00, the square root of 7 is between 2 and 3 – say 2.6, multiply by 10 = 26 nm LOS distance.

For air-to-air communications the LOS distance is the sum of two 'distance to horizon' calculations: i.e. one aircraft at 5000 feet the other at 10 000 feet: the maximum LOS distance will be 70 + 100 = 170 nm. It may be a bit more than that because of wave diffraction at the intervening horizon. Intervening mountain terrain may reduce the distance. The LOS distance is the theoretical maximum range for direct path VHF transmission/reception. The actual distance is likely to be a lot less; dependent on the transmitter/receiver system, the type and placement of the antenna, the quality of the receiver/headset system and quite a few other considerations. The effective range may be as low as 5 nm or as much as the full LOS distance but an effective range of 50 nm is probable for a good low-power installation.

VHF (fm) radio transmission range can be affected by heat of day (dessert campaigns). Normal range of receiver may only be 10 km in the desert which provides poor electrical ground and a counterpoise (an artificial ground) is needed to improve the range of antennas. Dry desert conditions can, at times, reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, (FM communications may be degraded due to dead spots caused by heavy concentrations of minerals close to the surface) even with aircraft operating nap of the earth. Directionality - The positioning of antennas created blind spots to the front and rear of aircraft. Aircraft occasionally had to be rotated to communicate with other crews and ground units.

Sound long wave length heard as low pitch sound. Short wave length, high pitch. Below 20 Hz or above 15k Hz. most people cannot hear. Between 20 Hz. and 15k Hz. called audible range. The sounds you here are called Sonics. Below 20 Hz. Subsonic, above 15k ultrasonic. Microphones/transducers are any devices that convert electrical signals to some other from or vice versa. Example of Transverse wave, stone thrown into quiet pool motion of molecules is up and down at Rt angle to the direction in which waves are traveling. Sound waves are not transverse. Example: illustrated motions of amplitude and cycle seen in cross section ( ~~~~~ ) waves of water. Before stone thrown in the water surface is half way between crest and trough of each wave. The max displacement of surface from this zero level is the amplitude of the wave motion. A cycle is one complete double vibration in this case measured from (one crest trough zero to trough zero again and the next crest?) i.e. if you take zero as your reference point you must include one trough and one crest. The numbers of cycles that pass a fixed point in one second gives you the frequency in Hz. A complete wave length is called a hertz.

Frequency modulated (FM) and very high frequency (VHF) radios that serve as the principal medium for C2 will have their effectiveness reduced in built-up areas. The operating frequencies and power output of the sets demand a line-of-sight between antennas. LoS is not always possible at street level. Amplitude modulated (AM) high frequency (HF) sets are less affected by the LoS because operating frequencies are lower and power output is greater. HF radios are not organic to the small units that will conduct the clearing operations. Retransmission stations in aerial platforms for FM and VHF could provide the most effective means if they are available.

Note low energy equals long wavelength. High energy equals short wavelength.

The lower the signal (left side of the FM dial) the longer the antenna needs to be; and inversely, the higher the signal is, the shorter the antenna length needs to be.

When attaching cables with staples or thumbtacks, be careful to only attach through the insulation and not have the metal touch any bare wire.

FIELD-EXPEDIENT ANTENNAS

REPAIR TECHNIQUES

DANGER; DEATH CAN RESULT FROM CONTACT WITH THE RADIATING ANTENNA OF A MEDIUM-POWER OR HIGH-POWER TRANSMITTER. TURN THE TRANSMITTER OFF WHILE MAKING ADJUSTMENTS OR REPAIRS.

a. Whip Antennas. When a whip antenna is broken into two sections, the part of the antenna that is broken off can be connected to the part attached to the base by joining the sections. (Use the method shown in A, Figure 7-1, when both parts of the broken whip are available and usable.) (Use the method in B, Figure 7-1, when the part of the whip that was broken off is lost or when the whip is so badly damaged that it cannot be used.) To restore the antenna to its original length, a piece of wire is added that is nearly the same length as the missing part of the whip. The pole support is then lashed securely to both sections of the antenna. The two antenna sections are cleaned thoroughly to ensure good contact before connecting them to the pole support. If possible, the connections are soldered.

b. WIRE ANTINAS; lower the antenna to the ground, clean the ends of the wires, and twist the wires together. Whenever possible, solder the connection.

(2) If the antenna is damaged beyond repair, construct a new one. Make sure that the length of the wires of the substitute antenna are the same length as those of the original.

(3) Antenna supports may also require repair or replacement. A substitute item may be used in place of a damaged support and, if properly insulated, can be of any material of adequate strength. If the radiating element is not properly insulated, field antennas may be shorted to ground and be ineffective. Many commonly found items can be used as field-expedient insulators. The best of these items are plastic or glass to include plastic spoons, buttons, bottle necks, and plastic bags. Though less effective than plastic or glass but still better than no insulator at all are wood and rope. The radiating element--the actual antenna wire-should touch only the antenna terminal and should be physically separated from all other objects, other than the supporting insulator. (See Figure 7-2 for various methods of making emergency insulators.)

CONSTRUCTION AND ADJUSTMENT

a. Construction. The best wire for antennas is copper and aluminum. (1) The exact length of most antennas is critical. (2) Antennas supported by trees can usually survive heavy wind storms. To keep the antenna taut and to prevent it from breaking or stretching as the trees sway, attach a spring or old inner tube to one end of the antenna. Another technique is to pass a rope through a pulley or eyehook. The rope is attached to the end of the antenna and loaded with a heavyweight to keep the antenna tightly drawn.

(3) Guidelines used to hold antenna supports are made of rope or wire. To ensure the guidelines will not affect the operation of the antenna, the sniper cuts the wire into several short lengths and connects the pieces with insulators.

b. Adjustment. An improvised antenna may change the performance of a radio set. The following methods can be used to determine if the antenna is operating properly:

(1) A distant station may be used to test the antenna. If the signal received from this station is strong, the antenna is operating satisfactorily. If the signal is weak, adjust the height and length of the antenna and the transmission line to receive the strongest signal at a given setting on the volume control of the receiver. This is the best method of tuning an antenna when transmission is dangerous or forbidden.

(2) In some radio sets, use the transmitter to adjust the antenna. First, set the controls of the transmitter to normal; then, tune the system by adjusting the antenna height, the antenna length, and the transmission line length to obtain the best transmission output.

FIELD-EXPEDIENT OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS

Vertical antennas are omnidirectional it transmits and receives equally well in all directions. Most tactical antennas are vertical; for example, the man-pack portable radio uses a vertical whip and so do the vehicular radios in tactical vehicles. A vertical antenna can be made by using a metal pipe or rod of the correct length, held erect by means of guidelines. The lower end of the antenna should be insulated from the ground by placing it on a large block of wood or other insulating material. A vertical antenna may also be a wire supported by a tree or a wooden pole (Figure 7-3). For short vertical antennas, the pole may be used without guidelines (if properly supported at the base). If the length of the vertical mast is not long enough to support the wire upright, it may be necessary to modify the connection at the top of the antenna (Figure 7-4). (See FM 24-18.)

a. End-Fed Half-Wave Antenna. (Figure 7-5) can be constructed from available materials such as field wire, rope, and wooden insulators. The electrical length of this antenna is measured from the antenna terminal on the radio set to the far end of the antenna. The best performance can be obtained by constructing the antenna longer than necessary and then shortening it, as required, until the best results are obtained. The ground terminal of the radio set should be connected to a good earth ground for this antenna to function efficiently.

b. Center-Fed Doublet Antenna is a half-wave antenna consisting of two quarter wavelength sections on each side of the center (Figure 7-6). Doublet antennas are directional broadside to their length, which makes the vertical doublet antenna omnidirectional. This is because the radiation pattern is doughnut-shaped and bidirectional.

(1) Compute the length of a half-wave antenna by using the formula in paragraph 7-5. (2) Uses transmission line for conducting electrical energy from one point to another and for transferring the output of a transmitter to an antenna. Although it is possible to connect an antenna directly to a transmitter, the antenna is usually located some distance away. (3) Support center-fed half-wave FM antennas entirely with pieces of wood. (A horizontal antenna of this type is shown in A, Figure 7-7 and a vertical antenna in B, Figure 7-7.) Rotate these antennas to any position to obtain the best performance.

(a) If the antenna is erected vertically, bring out the transmission line horizontally from the antenna for a distance equal to at least one-half of the antenna's length before it is dropped down to the radio set.

(b) The half-wave antenna is used with FM radios (Figure 7-8). It is effective in heavily wooded areas to increase the range of portable radios. Connect the top guidelines to a limb or pass it over the limb and connect it to the tree trunk or a stake.

FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS

The vertical half-rhombic antenna (Figure 7-9) and the long-wire antenna (Figure 7-10) are two field-expedient directional antennas. These antennas consist of a single wire, preferably two or more wavelengths long, supported on poles at a height of 3 to 7 meters (10 to 20 feet) above the ground. The antennas will, however, operate satisfactorily as low as 1 meter (about 3 feet) above the ground--the radiation pattern is directional. The antennas are used mainly for either transmitting or receiving high-frequency signals.

a. The V antenna (Figure 7-11) is another field-expedient directional antenna. It consists of two wires forming a V with the open area of the V pointing toward the desired direction of transmission or reception. To make construction easier, the legs should slope downward from the apex of the V; this is called a sloping-V antenna (Figure 7-12). The angle between the legs varies with the length of the legs to achieve maximum performance. (to determine the angle and the length of the legs, use the table in Table 7-1.)

b. When the antenna is used with more than one frequency or wavelength, use an apex angle that is midway between the extreme angles determined by the chart. To make the antenna radiate in only one direction, add noninductive terminating resistors from the end of each leg (not at the apex) to ground. (See TM 11-666.)

ANTENNA LENGTH

Length must be considered in two ways: both physical and electrical length, they are never the same. The reduced velocity of the wave on the antenna and a capacitive effect (known as end effect) make the antenna seem longer electrically than it is physically. The contributing factors are the ratio of the diameter of the antenna to its length and the capacitive effect of terminal equipment, such as insulators and clamps, used to support the antenna.

a. calculating physical length, use a correction of 0.95 for frequencies between 3.0 and 50.0 MHz. The figures given below are for a half-wave antenna.

b. Use the following formula to calculate the length of a long-wire antenna (one wavelength or longer) for harmonic operation:

N equals the number of half-wavelengths in the total length of the antenna. For example, if the number of half-wavelengths is 3 and the frequency in MHz is 7, then—

Wave length and antennas from aircraft notes;

It is stated in the electromagnetic spectrum section that the frequency in MHz = 300/wavelength in meters, or restated; the wavelength in meters = 300/MHz.

Thus the wavelengths involved in the aviation VHF COMMS band, 118.00 to 136.975 MHz, are from 2.54 metres to 2.19 meters and the mid-point is about 2.37 meters. The Multicom frequency 127.6 MHz has a wavelength of 300/127.6 = 2.37 metres. Wavelength is important as the efficiency of the antenna (a passive electrical conductor that radiates the signal energy when transmitting, or collects signal energy when receiving) partly depends on its length relative to the frequency wavelength. Most ineffective radio installations are because of ineffective antenna installations and/or RF interference generated by the engine ignition system or the aircraft's electrical components.

7-6. ANTENNA ORIENTATION

If the azimuth of the radio path is not provided, the azimuth should be determined by the best available means. The accuracy required in determining the azimuth of the path depends on the radiation pattern of the directional antenna. In transportable operation, the rhombic and V antennas may have such a narrow beam as to require great accuracy in azimuth determination. The antenna should be erected for the correct azimuth. Great accuracy is not required in erecting broad-beam antennas. Unless a line of known azimuth is available at the site, the direction of the path is best determined by a magnetic compass.

7-7. IMPROVEMENT OF MARGINAL COMMUNICATIONS

Under certain situations, it may not be feasible to orient directional antennas to the correct azimuth of the desired radio path. As a result, marginal communications may suffer. To improve marginal communications, the following procedure can be used:

a. Check, tighten, and tape cable couplings and connections.

b. Return all transmitters and receivers in the circuit.

c. Ensure antennas are adjusted for the proper operating frequency.

d. Change the heights of antennas.

e. Move the antenna a short distance away and in different locations from its original location.

3.2 Transceiver operation from aircraft notes;

The apparatus which comprises an aircraft station is:

an antenna system and feed line coaxial cable

a radio transmitter/receiver unit or transceiver with modulating, transmitting, receiving, demodulating and power amplification circuits: and mounting the operator controls and displays

a speaker/earphone and circuits to convert electromagnetic waves to sound waves

a microphone and circuits to convert sound waves to electromagnetic waves

and the necessary interconnection cables, connectors and matching devices.

All the system components must be correctly matched (electrically) to each other and to any separate cockpit intercom unit installed in a two-seat aircraft.

Transmission

Amplitude modulation (AM) of the fixed RF carrier wave, rather than frequency modulation (FM), is used in the aviation band to impress the voice information on the carrier wave generated by the transceiver. AM occupies less bandwidth than FM consequently the AM channel spacing in the aviation COMMS band is only 25 kHz.

When the transceiver is powered up and the pilot speaks into the microphone, while depressing a 'press-to-talk' (PTT) button, the transmitter circuits amplify and broadcast, via the antenna system, the selected output frequency (126.7 MHz for example) modulated with the audio frequencies from the microphone. Which, by the way, may also include the cockpit background noise. The low fidelity R/T audio frequencies added are in the range 50 Hz – 5000 Hz; much the same as the domestic AM radio broadcast or the public telephone system.

The transmit power of handheld transceivers is usually around 1 to 1.5 watts carrier wave; fixed installation transceivers are around 4 to 8 watts carrier wave.

Some handheld suppliers quote the peak envelope power (PEP) output which for ordinary speech is probably around three times the carrier wave value. The peak envelope power of an AM signal occurs at the highest crest of the modulated wave.

RECEPTION;

An aircraft antenna continually collects all passing RF energy in the band for which it is designed; the receiver tunes out all transmissions on all frequencies except one – the selected, or active, frequency. Signals on this frequency are demodulated to isolate the voice information from the carrier, amplify it and pass to the speaker system to convert to the sound waves heard in the earphones or speaker.

Setting and changing frequencies

Frequencies required are usually entered into a VHF transceiver via an electronic keyboard, concentric rotatable knobs, toggle buttons or a set of thumbwheels. There may be a switch to set channel steps at either 25 kHz or 50 kHz. Most transceivers allow the user to set one frequency into the unit as the active frequency and to set a second frequency as the stand-by frequency. All transmission and reception is done on the active frequency. Pressing a flip-flop, or similar switch, causes the stand-by to become the active and the active to become the stand-by.

Thus normal procedure prior to take-off is to set the airfield frequency as the active and the flight information area FIA frequency as the stand-by. When departing the airfield area pressing the flip-flop will make the FIA frequency active for the required listening watch. On return to the airfield area pressing the flip-flop again restores the airfield frequency to active.

Generally when selecting, keying or dialing another frequency during flight the new frequency changes the stand-by frequency.

Features common to most transceivers

A number of memory positions (5 – 50) allowing storage of frequently used airfield/FIA and other frequencies.

An associated fast scanning function of those stored frequencies.

Instant access to the emergency/distress frequency of 121.5 MHz.

High and low transmit power settings for handheld transceivers giving a choice of minimum battery drain or maximum range.

Handheld transceivers are usually supplied with adapter(s) to connect the unit to the aircraft's COMMS (and NAV) antenna(s).

Handhelds usually have key locking facilities to prevent inadvertent frequency changes or transmissions.

Handhelds may also provide access to the 200 channels in the NAV band between 108.00 and 117.975 MHz, which gives a limited VOR capability if the transceiver can be adapted to a NAV dipole antenna. The main advantage provided by this facility is access to any ATIS or AWIB frequencies between 112.1 and 117.975 MHz.

Headsets

The cockpits of powered light aircraft are notoriously noisy and those close to a high rpm two-stroke engine are the worst. Propeller tip speeds may approach Mach 0.8 and generate noise at fairly high frequencies while the engine produces noise in the low to middle frequencies. External airflow noise may, or may not, be significant depending on the existence and effectiveness of cockpit sealing. In all, the cockpit noise level may approach 100 dB and long term exposure to noise above 90 dB will damage hearing. Also noise and vibration add to pilot fatigue and the low frequency engine noises below 300 Hz are particularly fatiguing.

Headsets serve a dual purpose in providing hearing protection whilst improving communications. The basic headset consists of two earphones with some physical sound sealing capability plus a directional microphone mounted on an adjustable boom, so that it can be positioned within 1 – 3 cm in front of [and square on to] the pilot's lips when transmitting. The headset cables are jacked into the transceiver input/output sockets or patched via a cockpit intercom unit.

Individual volume control on each earphone with an electronic noise reduction system and cockpit noise canceling microphones are available. You can get headsets specifically designed for two stroke engine noise reduction.

Normal headsets rely solely on passive noise reduction – creating a physical barrier around the ear to attenuate noise – which usually works quite well for middle to high frequency sound but doesn't block low frequency engine noise and background rumble.

Active noise reduction technology uses electronics to determine the amount of low frequency (50-600 Hz) range engine and other noise entering the system and then generating out-of-phase noise, in the same frequency range; countering the background noise and leaving a soft 'white' noise in the headphones. But the technology doesn't significantly affect the higher frequency noise.

Using the squelch control

All transceivers have some form of ON/OFF/TEST/VOLUME control. Aircraft cockpits being very noisy the output volume control must be set fairly high, which of course amplifies the weak atmospheric background radio frequency noise – the hash always there when no transmissions are being heard on the active frequency, and can be quite annoying.

The 'squelch' or 'gain' or 'RF gain' or 'sensitivity' control is an adjustable filtering device which, for operator comfort, can be set just to filter out the hash but still allow any strong signals to be switched through. The squelch control should only be switched on and adjusted when contact with the active frequency has been established; otherwise, when the signal is weak, there is a high risk of also filtering out the active frequency. Some transceivers have an automatic gain control in which case pressing the test facility will override the squelch allowing the background hash to be heard.

Transmission/reception pattern

Because of antenna characteristics and airframe shielding the radiation/reception pattern of the antenna will be weaker in some directions and may even exhibit null zones. The easiest way to check this is to tune in the continuous broadcast at a reasonable (30 nm) distance from a known ATIS, AWIB or AERIS location, then circle while listening to the signal strength. A few turns should be sufficient to plot the directions, relative to the aircraft's longitudinal axis, from which signal strength weakens and/or reduces to nil. Because the attitude of the aircraft also affects transmission/reception it is advisable to first fly non-banked turns to ascertain the normal pattern then fly banked turns to check the consequent effects.

Automatic En route Information System network

ATIS the Automatic Terminal Information Systems at some aerodromes

AWIB or AWIS the Automatic Weather Information Broadcast Systems at some aerodromes

Impedance matching

All VHF transceivers are designed for a standard load (impedance) of 50 ohms and ideally the coaxial cable, BNC connectors and antenna match that 50 ohm impedance all the way: then all the transmission power sent to the antenna will be radiated as RF energy. However the resonant frequency of any antenna will match only one frequency and the COMMS operational frequencies range over 19 MHz. So for most transmission frequencies the antenna will exhibit positive or negative reactance (or impedance) which results in the phenomenon know as 'stationary' or 'standing' waves in the feed line, and reduces the output of the antenna. Also the incoming signals will be weaker.

The RF performance of the antenna system is expressed in terms of the voltage standing wave ratio (SWR or VSWR). A perfect (but most unlikely) antenna system would have a SWR of 1:1 but generally a SWR less than 2:1 results in quite acceptable performance and limits transceiver over-heating. The Microair 760 requires a SWR between 1.3:1 and 1.5:1. If the transmission performance is OK then the reception performance should also be OK.

RADIO OPERATIONS UNDER UNUSUAL CONDITIONS

ARCTIC AREAS

Single-channel radio equipment has certain capabilities and limitations that must be carefully considered when operating in cold areas. One limitation is ionospheric disturbances, aka ionospheric storms, have a definite degrading effect on sky wave propagation. Moreover, either the storms or the auroral (such as northern lights) activity can cause complete failure communications. Some frequencies may be blocked completely by static for extended periods during storm activity. Fading, caused by changes in the density and height of the ionosphere, can also occur and may last from minutes to weeks. The occurrence is difficult to predict, the use of alternate frequencies and a greater reliance on FM are required.

a. Antenna Installation in Arctic-like areas presents no serious problems. However, installing some antennas may take longer because of adverse working conditions. Some suggestions for installing antennas in extremely cold areas are as follows:

(1) Antenna cables must be handled carefully since they become brittle.

(2) Whenever possible, antenna cables should be constructed overhead to prevent damage from heavy snow and frost. Nylon rope guidelines, if available, should be used in preference to cotton or hemp because nylon ropes do not readily absorb moisture and are less likely to freeze and break.

(3) An antenna should have extra guidelines, supports, and anchor stakes to strengthen it to withstand heavy ice and wind.

(4) Some radios (usually older generation radios) adjusted to a specific frequency in a relatively warm place may drift off frequency when exposed to extreme cold. Low battery voltage can also cause frequency drift. When possible, a radio should warm up several minutes before placing it into operation. Since extreme cold tends to lower output voltage of a dry battery, warming the battery with body heat before operating the radio set can reduce frequency drift.

(5) When flakes of highly electrically charged snow strikes the antenna the resulting electrical discharge causes a high-pitched static roar that can blanket all frequencies. Overcome by covering antenna elements with polystyrene tape and shellac.

b. Maintenance Improvement in Arctic Areas. Snow can pile up around bases and cause shorts and problems with grounds. Cords must be handled carefully as they may lose their flexibility in extreme cold.

(1) Batteries. Factors: the type and kind of battery i.e. wet and dry cell batteries, the load on the battery, the specific use of the battery, and the degree of exposure.

(2) Winterization. For example, lubricants must be replaced with the recommended Arctic types normal lubricants may solidify and cause damage or malfunctions.

(3) Microphone. Moisture from breath may freeze on the microphone. Covers can be used to prevent this. A suitable cover can be improvised from rubber or cellophane membranes or from rayon or nylon cloth.

(4) Breathing and sweating. A radio set generates heat when it is operated. When turned off, the air inside the radio set cools and contracts, and draws cold air into the set from the outside. This is called breathing. When a radio breathes and the still-hot parts come in contact with subzero air, the glass, plastic, and ceramic parts of the set may cool too rapidly and break. When cold equipment is brought suddenly into contact with warm air, moisture condenses on the equipment parts. This is called sweating. Before cold equipment is brought into a heated area, it should be wrapped in a blanket or parka to ensure that it warms gradually to reduce sweating. Equipment must be thoroughly dry before it is taken into the cold air or the moisture will freeze.

JUNGLE AREAS

However, since single-channel radio can be deployed in many configurations, especially man-packed, it is a valuable communications asset. The capabilities and limitations of single-channel radio must be carefully considered when used by forces in a jungle environment. The mobility and various configurations in which a single-channel radio can be deployed are its main advantages in jungle areas. Limitations on radio communications in jungle areas are due to the climate i.e. heat and humidity increases maintenance and dense growth reduces range of transmission. Thick growth acts as a vertically polarized absorbing screen for radio frequency energy. Therefore, increased emphasis on maintenance and antenna sitting the main problem in establishing communications in jungle areas.

a. Operational Techniques.

(1) Locate antennas in clearings on the edge farthest from the distant station and as high as possible.

(2) Keep antenna cables and connectors off the ground to lessen the effects of moisture, fungus, and insects. This also applies to all power and telephone cables.

(3) Use complete antenna systems, such as ground planes and dipoles, for more effect than fractional wavelength whip antennas.

(4) Clear vegetation from antenna sites. If an antenna touches any foliage, especially wet foliage, the signal will be grounded.

(5) When wet, vegetation acts like a vertically polarized screen and absorbs much of a vertically polarized signal. Use horizontally polarized antennas in preference to vertically polarized antennas.

b. Maintenance Improvement.

Techniques for improving maintenance:

(1) Keep the equipment as dry as possible and in lighted areas to retard fungus growth on connectors, cables, and bare metal parts.

(2) Clear all air vents of obstructions so air can circulate to cool and dry the equipment.

(4) Use moisture and fungus-proofing paint to protect equipment after repairs are made or when equipment is damaged or scratched.

c. Expedient Antennas. While moving, teams are usually restricted to using the short and long antennas that come with the radios. However, when not moving, one can use expedient antennas to broadcast farther and to receive more clearly. However, an antenna that is not "tuned" or "cut" to the operating frequency is not as effective as the whips that are supplied with the radio. Circuits inside the radio "load" the whips properly so that they are "tuned" to give the greatest output. Whips are not as effective as a tuned doublet or tuned ground plane (namely RC 292-type), but the doublet or ground plane must be tuned to the operating frequency. This is especially critical with low-power radios such as the AN/PRC-77.

(1) Expedient 292-type antenna. Developed for use in the jungle. In its entirety, it is bulky, heavy, and not acceptable for sniper team operations. The team can, however, carry only the mast head and antenna sections, mounting these on wood poles or hanging them from trees; or, the team can make a complete expedient 292-type antenna (Figure 7-13), using WD-1, wire, and other readily available material. The team can also use almost any plastic, glass, or rubber objects for insulators. Dry wood (i.e. drift wood) is acceptable when nothing else is available. How to make this antenna:

(a) Use the quick-reference table (Table 7-2) to determine the length of the elements (one radiating and three ground planes) for the frequency that will be used. Cut these elements (A, Figure 7-13) from WD-1 field wire (or similar wire). Cut spacing sticks (B, Figure 7-13) the same length. Place the ends of the sticks together to form a triangle and tie the ends with wire, tape, or rope. Attach an insulator to each corner. Attach a ground-plane wire to each insulator. Bring the other ends of the ground-plane wires together, attach them to an insulator (C, Figure 7-13), and tie securely. Strip about 3 inches of insulation from each wire and twist them together.

(b) Tie one end of the radiating element wire to the other side of insulator C and the other end to another insulator (D, Figure 7-13). Strip about 3 inches of insulation from the radiating element at insulator C.

(c) Cut enough WD-1 field wire to reach from the proposed location of the antenna to the radio set. Keep this line as short as possible, excess length reduces efficiency. Tie a knot at each end to identify it as the "hot" lead. Remove insulation from the "hot" wire and tie it to the radiating element wire at insulator C. Remove insulation from the other wire and attach it to the bare ground-plane element wires at insulator C. Tape all connections and do not allow the radiating element wire to touch the ground-plane wires.

(d) Attach a rope to the insulator on the free end of the radiating element and toss the rope over the branches of a tree. Pull the antenna as high as possible, keeping the lead-in routed down through the triangle. Secure the rope to hold the antenna in place.

(e) At the radio set, remove about 1 inch of insulation from the "hot" lead and about 3 inches of insulation from the other wire. Attach the "hot" line to the antenna terminal (doublet connector, if so labeled). Attach the other wire to the metal case-the handle, for example. Be sure both connections are tight or secure.

(f) Set up correct frequency, turn on the set, and proceed with communications.

(2) Expedient patrol antenna. This is another antenna that is easy to carry and quick to set up (Figure 7-14). The two radiating wires are cut to the length shown in Table 7-2 for the operating frequency. For the best results, the lead-in should extend at least 1.8 meters (6 feet) at right angles (plus or minus 30 degrees) to the antenna section before dropping to the radio set. The easiest way to set up this antenna is to measure the length of the radiating elements from one end of the lead-in (WD-1) and tie a knot at that point. The two wires are separated: one is lifted vertically by a rope and insulator; the other is held down by a rock or other weight and a rope and insulator. The antenna should be as high as possible. The other end of the lead-in is attached to the radio set as described in paragraph 7-9c (1), expedient 292-type antenna.

DESERT AREAS

a. Techniques for Better Operations. Antennas should be located on the highest terrain. In the desert, transmitters using whip antennas lose one-fifth to one-third of their normal range due to the poor electrical grounding common to desert terrain. For this reason, complete antenna systems must be used such as horizontal dipoles and vertical antennas with adequate counterpoises.

b. Equipment Considerations. Some radios automatically switch on their second blower fan if their internal temperature rises too high. Normally, this happens only in temperate climates when the radios are transmitting. Radio frequency power amplifiers used in AM and single sideband sets may overheat and burn out. Such equipment should be turned on only when necessary (signal reception is not affected). Since the RF power amplifiers take about 90 seconds to reach the operating mode, the SOP of units using the equipment allows for delays in replying. Dust affects communications equipment such as SSB/AMRF power amplifiers and radio teletypewriter sets. Radio teletypewriter sets are prone to damage due to the vulnerability of the oil lubrication system, which attracts and holds dust particles. Dust covers, therefore, should be used when possible.

Some receiver-transmitter units have ventilating ports and channels that can get clogged with dust. These must be checked regularly and kept clean to prevent overheating.

c. Batteries. Dry battery supplies must be increased, since hot weather causes batteries to fail more rapidly.

d. Electrical Insulation. Wind-blown sand and grit damage electrical wire insulation over time. All cables that are likely to be damaged should be protected with tape. Sand also finds its way into parts of items, such as "spaghetti cord" plugs, either preventing electrical contact or making it impossible to join the plugs together. A brush, such as an old toothbrush, should be carried and used to clean such items before they are joined.

e. Condensation. In deserts with relatively high dew levels and high humidity, overnight condensation can occur wherever surfaces are cooler than the air temperature, such as metals exposed to air. This condensation can affect electrical plugs, jacks, and connectors. All connectors likely to be affected by condensation should be taped. Plugs should be dried before inserting them into equipment jacks. Excessive moisture or dew should be dried from antenna connectors to prevent arcing.

f. Static Electricity. Prevalent in the desert, is caused by many factors, one of which is wind-blown dust particles. Extremely low humidity contributes to static discharges between charged particles. Poor grounding conditions aggravate the problem. All sharp edges (tips) of antennas should be taped to reduce wind-caused static discharges and the accompanying noise. Since static-caused noise lessens with an increase infrequency, the highest frequencies that are available should be used.

g. Maintenance Improvement. Maintenance is more difficult due to the large amounts of sand, dust, or dirt that enter the equipment. Sets equipped with servomechanisms are especially affected. Keep sets in dustproof containers as much as possible. Air vent filters should also be kept clean to allow cool air to circulate to prevent overheating. Preventive maintenance checks should be made often, closely check the lubricated parts of the equipment.

MOUNTAINOUS AREAS

Operation of radios in mountainous areas have many of the same problems as in northern or cold weather areas. The mountainous terrain makes the selection of transmission sites a critical task. In addition, terrain restrictions often require radio relay stations. Due to terrain obstacles, radio transmissions often have to be by line of sight. Also, the ground in mountainous areas is often a poor electrical conductor. Thus, a complete antenna system, such as a dipole or ground-plane antenna with a counterpoise, should be used. The varied or seasonal temperature and climatic conditions in mountainous areas make flexible maintenance planning a necessity.

FM communications can be ineffective due to high altitude and operating distances. Due to the difficult terrain and modified table of organization and equipment (MTOE) field, units essentially operate from their headquarters and often are limited to tactical satellite (TACSAT) radios to communicate over vast distances. Units have only a single channel wide band TACSAT radio available in use. The TACSAT system is slow and requires deliberate conversation. Army bandwidth may be too narrow for effective communications.

JTIDS Joint tactical information distributing system.

MTN COMUNICATIONS

Line-of-sight communications is excellent in the mountains but difficult to achieve because of high peaks. Therefore, communications sites are carefully selected and often become key terrain. Very-high frequency radios with automatic frequency hopping, encryption, and burst transmission capabilities work best. Normal batteries quickly lose power in the cold, so lithium batteries should be the normal issue.Frequently, mountain tops become part of the national communications infrastructure because they are crowded with military, national, and commercial radio and television sites and telephone relay towers. These vital areas need to be protected, and military platoons often garrison such communications sites against guerrilla attacks.

Frequently, key terrain is related to mobility-passes, main supply routes, road heads, and intermittent staging posts. Light infantry and artillery are the primary combat forces. Sensors for the defense can be rapidly covered by snow.

There are few ideal spots for communication. FM radios, which are line of sight systems, frequently cannot communicate because their signals are absorbed by terrain folds and features. If all the force is on the same side of the mountain and the mountain forms a bowl, FM communications are usually possible. However, radios located on the same side of the mountain at different altitudes can have difficulty communicating. If forces are deployed on the same side of a mountain which curves out, communications are especially difficult. Even FM radios located on the summit have difficulty communicating with radios located further down the mountain. Communications sites must be carefully selected–and often become key terrain. When line-of-sight communications in mountains are possible, communications are excellent, but there are few sites where line-of sight is possible to all other elements in the net. There are often only three solutions–either move the radio to where it can communicate, set up a radio retransmission site or relay messages across the net.

Radio retransmission sites are expensive in terms of personnel and equipment. TO&Es normally do not provide adequate personnel and equipment to provide several retransmission sites. Further, since the retransmission team must work away from the main body, it must have enough personnel to protect itself and haul all its gear (batteries, antennas, guy wires etc.) to the retransmission location. Moving a site is labor intense. Maintaining a site is also a chore. Fresh batteries, chow and water have to be carried to the site and personnel rotated. If the mission is not static defense, the retransmission site has to constantly shift–to yet another site.

During the Soviet-Afghan War, Soviet forces often entered the Hindu Kush or Sulieman range. The Soviets often used Mi-9 VZPU command and control helicopters or other helicopters to conduct retransmission support during movement. Then, the Soviets had to resort to radio relay–a long, tedious process involving relaying the message to various stations until it eventually reaches the intended recipients. At first, communications troops made errors during radio relays. The Soviets solved this problem by requiring their communicators to physically record all messages prior to relaying them. Then they trained their communicators to write clearly and quickly on standard forms using capital letters while never lifting the pencil from the paper. The communicators would repeatedly listen to various transmissions and recordthem to gain proficiency.

UHF radios also present problems in the mountains. Like FM, UHF signals are absorbed by terrain, yet UHF are not restricted to line-of-sight and can bend somewhat over mountain tops. The Soviet tactical UHF radios were normally able to communicate out to 100 kilometers over open ground. They could also communicate out to 100 kilometers with an intervening mountain as long as the transmitting and receiving stations were on high ground and the intervening mountain was midway and no higher than 200 meters above the stations. Taller mountains and multiple peaks interfered with UHF communications. A single, closer, yet lower peak cut transmissions to 20-22 kilometers and that was only if the mountain crest was narrow and both stations were aimed at the sharp peak. UHF communications distance was cut to 10-12 kilometers if the intervening peak rose up to 100 meters higher than the stations. If there were a series of 200 to 400 meter peaks between stations, transmission distance was cut to 9-10 kilometers–and only if both stations were far enough away from the mountain bases and used whip antennae. Large, domed mountains cut UHF transmissions to 5-6 kilometers, while cut-up rugged mountain terrain further limited transmissions to 4-5 kilometers. UHF communications were frequently lost while moving along mountain roads or in the “silent zone” on the far side of mountains.

The Soviets took various measures to support UHF communications in the mountains. These measures included:

1. Select communications sites that have a narrow single mountain crest between them. Aim the transmissions at the highest peak. Keep the sites away from the mountain base. Deploying radios to direct the transmission over a narrow mountain peak (both radio operators must be able to see the mountain peak). 2. Deploy radios away from the mountain base to a distance at least equal to the distance of the slope between the base and mountain crest. 3. Deploy radios to commanding heights to improve their line-of-sight to the top of the intervening mountain. 4. Deploy the radios where they can communicate over a single mountain rather than a series of peaks and defiles. 5. When confronted with a large, domed mountain, deploy the radios away from the base of the mountain and on high ground.

Other problems in the mountains, erecting antennae is one of them. The hard stony ground makes it difficult to pound in stakes for ground wires and guy wires. Winds and slope make it hard to aim and tune antennae. Winds frequently tear down antennae. Another problem is that the optimum communications site may not be the optimum tactical location. Signal sites are often deployed separately from their main body. These sites are attractive targets. Weather is another problem. Antennae attract lightning. Antennae ice over rapidly the ice decreases the transmission power significantly. Diesel engines do not run very well at high altitude, yet most communications generators are diesel-fueled. Standard radio batteries do not handle cold well and therefore the more-expensive lithium batteries are necessary in the high mountains.

U.S. Army during ANACONDA has far more satellite communications radios (SATCOM) than the Soviets did during the Soviet-Afghan War, the During operation Anaconda, 101st units formed a single brigade–Task Force RAKKASANS. The base radio for the ground forces was the SINCGARS family of FM radios. Since the force landed inside a mountain bowl and the range of the battlefield was not too great, the FM radios worked surprisingly well, however, terrain folds frequently absorbed signals. “If you can’t talk, move” was the working solution, although some wags observed that “communications drives maneuver”. The fire direction net, brigade command net and battalion internal nets were all on FM radio. The task force did not use the frequency hopping option on the SINGARS since they also talked to neighboring special operations forces (SOF) on FM on a single frequency. A major advantage of FM radio was that ground forces could communicate with helicopter aviation once they were flying in the bowl. However, once the helicopter cleared the crest of the bowl, FM communication was lost.

The helicopters talked to each other on UHF radio. The ground forces had little luck with UHF radio. Unlike SINCGARS, UHF traffic was plain text. The pilots could talk to the main headquarters at Bagram (over 100 miles away) on UHF. TF RAKKASANS had little confidence or success using UHF on the battlefield, nor did they use HF radio. Canadian forces and SOF used HF radio to send scheduled reports, but not for combat. The ground forces did not bother taking VHF radios since they considered VHF as “unreliable and too complicated”, and “big and bulky and useless”. Indeed the 60-pound weight of the issue VHF radio is prohibitive on any terrain. The AN/PSC-5 TACSAT radio was the primary means of communications beyond the mountain bowl. Encrypted satellite communications were reliable, but the narrow-band width assigned to ground forces by the DAMA (demand assigned multiple access) system made communications very slow and hard to understand. Three battalions and the brigade had to share one 25 kilohertz channel! Further, the brigade’s TACSATs were not data capable which frustrated speed of communications and accuracy. The USAF and SOF, on the other hand had broadband TACSAT and enjoyed good communications. If no helicopters were in the bowl, TF RAKKASANS had to contact the AWACs aircraft by TACSAT. Since AWACS lacks TACSAT retransmission capability to helicopters, AWACs would manually relay messages to the helicopters.

Other means of communication were Iridium satellite telephones. Although they are difficult to encrypt, they provided excellent emergency communications and allowed the brigade to enter SIPERNET through laptop computers. Much necessary communication was done on the Internet through the SIPERNET-Iridium connection. Further, the Iridium net transmitted and received at normal speed while the TACSAT net was very slow and hard to understand. No wire communications were used, since wire is heavy and the brigade had limited lift capability. Radio batteries lasted about a day and fresh batteries were a key logistics concern.

Task Force RAKKASANS had two TACSAT narrow-band nets (one each from the 101st and 10th divisions), a USAF broad-band TACSAT net used by the Air Liaison Officer (ALO) to talk to supporting high-performance aircraft, an FM fire direction net and a FM command net. There were no brigade administrative and logistics or intelligence nets due to the limited number of TACSAT nets available. In order to save time and insure accuracy, when the brigade commander spoke, he spoke only to his commanders and everyone else stayed off the net. Due to the heavy fighting, there was no command and control helicopter over-flying the battlefield. The brigade staff worked out of Bagram where they had access to the Predator UAV feed coming into the 10th Mountain Division Headquarters. Each battalion had two TACSAT radios and the normal compliment of FM radios. Battalions were on the brigade TACSAT command net, the brigade FM command net, the brigade fire direction net and internal command net.

Satellite communications systems do have problems operating around terrain folds as well. Bandwidth and lack of data capability are further serious drawbacks. There is a role for FM and UHF. Iridium phones with computer data link are particularly valuable. Much of the staff work and battle management was accomplished in secure chat rooms. The problem with chat rooms, however, is that anyone with access can join in. The siren call to participate in an operation, even remotely, brought a lot of strap-hangers and time-wasters into the chat room.

Operation Anaconda demonstrated the need to have over-the-horizon communications with aircraft and the main headquarters. Further, the operation demonstrated the need for a survivable command and control aircraft. Data burst technology was not available.

URBANIZED TERRAIN

Special problems some problems are similar to those encountered in mountainous areas including obstacles blocking transmission paths. Others are poor conductivity due to pavement surfaces, and commercial power line interference.

a. VHF are not as effective in urbanized terrain as they are in other areas. The power output and operating frequencies of these sets require a line of sight between antennas not always possible at street level.

b. HF does not require or rely on LoS as much as VHF radios. This is due to operating frequencies being lower and power output being greater. The problem is that HF radio sets are not organic to small units. To overcome this, the VHF signals must be retransmitted.

7-13. NBC ENVIRONMENT

The ionization of the atmosphere by a nuclear explosion will have degrading effects on communications due to static and the disruption of the ionosphere.

a. Electromagnetic pulse results from a nuclear explosion and presents a great danger to communications. This pulse can enter the radio through the antenna system, power connections, and signal input connections. In the equipment, the pulse can break down circuit components such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. It can melt capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

b. Defensive measures against EMP shielding of equipment. When the equipment is not in use, all antennas and cables should be removed.

Dipole antennas

Aircraft COMMS antennas are usually dipoles or monopoles. A dipole is an antenna that is divided into two halves insulated from each other, each half is connected to a feed line (coaxial cable and RF BNC series bayonet connectors), at the inner end, which route the RF energy between the antenna and the transceiver. Each half is a little less than the mid point quarter-wave long usually about 56 cm, or 22 inches. (The mid point quarter wave is 2.37/4 =59 cm.) Rather than being set out end-to-end horizontally, each half is canted up about 22.5° to form an internal angle of around 135°, which prevents a deep "null" zone off both ends. NAV or COMMS dipoles may be mounted within the fuselage, if the aircraft is not metal skinned or metal framed: NAV antennas must be horizontally polarized i.e. mounted horizontally. An end-to-end vertically mounted COMMS dipole antenna can be built into the fin of a fiber-reinforced-plastic aircraft but not if carbon-fiber.

The telescopic 'rabbit's ears' antennas used with the old black and white TVs were dipoles – as channels (frequencies) were changed the length was adjusted to maintain the half-wavelength dimension.

Monopole antennas

The most common light aircraft COMMS antenna the monopole is just one half of a dipole i.e. quarter-wavelength. (To calculate antenna quarter-wavelength in centimeters divide 7130 by the frequency i.e. 7130/126.7 = 56 cm). Thus the monopole is usually about 56 cm long, mounted vertically normally on the top of the fuselage away from the undercarriage legs with the feed line conductor to/from the transceiver connected to the bottom end of the antenna. The 56 cm length should provide very good mid frequency reception and reasonable reception at the lower and upper ends of the COMMS band and, usually, increasing the thickness of the antenna element increases its effectiveness. The antenna element may be enclosed within a streamlined fiberglass fairing to add structural strength.

To replace the other half of the dipole a conductor system is placed just below the antenna to serve as an earth ground – a ground plane, ground screen or at least four ground radial strips or rods, connected to the coax cable shielding. The radius of the ground equals the length of the antenna i.e. 56 cm. In a metal skinned aircraft the fuselage acts as a ground plane, electrically insulated from the antenna by a very small gap.

The photo (looking aft). The centre plate and four 25 mm wide radials are cut from light gauge aluminum sheet. Total dimension from the antenna socket to the end of each radial is 57 cm about the mid point of the COMMS band. The sloped radials provide an antenna impedance of approx 50 ohms. The 50 ohms coax connecting the antenna is attached to the turtle deck formers with plastic P clips.

Bell code;

1 ring for 12;30, 4;30, 8;30

2 rings for 1;00, 5;00, 9;00

3 rings for 1;30, 5;30, 9;30

4 rings for 2;00, 6;00, 10;00

5 rings for 2;30, 6;30, 10;30

6 rings for 3;00, 7;00 11;00

7 rings for 3;30, 7;30, 11;30

8 rings for 4;00, 8;00, 12;00

Appendix PCP rule # 4/5

CLIMBING HARDWARE

Pickets, Ice Axes and hammers

Piton Hammers; has a flat metal head; with a blunt pick on the opposite side; (Figure 3-14). A safety lanyard of nylon cord, webbing, or leather, long enough to allow a full range of motion. Most are approximately 25.5 cm long and weigh 12 to 25 ounces. The hammers primary use is cleaning cracks and rock surfaces to prepare to drive pitons, or assist in removing pitons.

Photo edited

Figure 3-14 Piton hammer

Ice Ax; the versatility of the ax lends itself to balance, step cutting, probing, self-arrest, belays, anchors, direct-aid climbing. Parts of an ice ax: the shaft (handle), head (pick and adze), and spike (Figure 3-24). The pick should be curved slightly and have teeth at least one-fourth of its length. The adze, used for chopping, is perpendicular to the shaft. It can be flat or curved along its length and straight or rounded from side to side. The head can be of one-piece construction or have replaceable picks and adzes. The head should have a hole directly above the shaft to allow for a leash to be attached. The spike at the bottom of the ax. (primary length of the standard ax is 70 cm). As climbing becomes more technical, a shorter ax is much more appropriate, and adding a second tool is a must when the terrain becomes vertical. The shorter ax has all the attributes of the longer ax, but it is anywhere from 40 to 55 centimeters long and can have a straight or bent shaft depending on the preference of the user.

Ice Hammer; is as short or shorter than the technical ax (Figure 3-24). It is used for pounding protection into the ice or pitons into the rock. The only difference between the ice ax and the ice hammer is the ice hammer has a hammerhead instead of an adze.

Figure 3-24 Ice ax and ice hammers

Note photo edited

Pickets and ice axes may be used as snow anchors as follows. (1) The picket should be driven into the snow at 5 to 15 degrees off perpendicular from the lower surface. If the picket cannot be driven in all the way to the top hole, the carabiner should be placed in the hole closest to the snow surface to reduce leverage. The picket may also be tied off with a short loop of webbing or rope as in tying off pitons. (2) An ice ax can be used in place of a picket. When using an ice ax as a snow anchor, it should be inserted with the widest portion of the ax shaft facing the direction of pull. The simplest connection to the ax is to use a sling or rope directly around the shaft just under the head. If using the leash ensure it is not worn, frayed, or cut from general use; is strong enough; and does not twist the ax when loaded. A carabiner can be clipped through the hole in the head, also. (3) Whenever the strength of the snow anchor is suspect, especially when a picket or ax cannot be driven in all the way, the anchor may be buried in the snow and used as a "dead man" anchor. Other items suitable for dead man anchor construction are backpacks, skis, snowshoes, ski poles, or any other item large enough or shaped correctly to achieve the design. A similar anchor, sometimes referred to as a "dead guy," can be made with a large sack either stuffed with noncompressible items or filled with snow and buried. Ensure the attaching point is accessible before burying. The direction of pull on long items, such as a picket or ax, should be at a right angle to its length. The construction is identical to that of the dead man anchor used in earth.

Chock Picks; used to extract chocks from rock when they become severely wedged (Figure 3-18). When extracting a chock be sure no force is applied directly to the cable juncture. One end of the chock pick should have a hook to use on jammed SLCDs.

Figure 3-18 Chock picks

PITONS

Pitons; Metal pins hammered into cracks in rock. They are described by their thickness, design, and length (Figure 3-13). Types of pitons include: vertical, horizontal, wafer, and angle. The strength of the piton is determined by its placement rather than its rated tensile strength. The two most common types of pitons are: blades, which hold when wedged into tight-fitting cracks, and angles, which hold blade compression when wedged into a crack.

Figure 3-13 Various pitons

Vertical Pitons; the blade and eye are aligned. They are used in flush, vertical cracks. Horizontal Pitons; the eye is at right angles to the blade. They are used in flush, horizontal cracks and in offset or open-book type vertical or horizontal cracks. They are recommended for use in vertical cracks instead of vertical pitons because the torque on the eye tends to wedge the piton into place. This provides more holding power than the vertical piton under the same circumstances. Wafer Pitons; used in shallow, flush cracks. They have little holding power and their weakest points are in the rings provided for the carabiner. Knife Blade Pitons; Used in direct-aid climbing. They are small and fit into thin, shallow cracks. They have a tapered blade that is optimum for both strength and holding power.

Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons; (RURPs) are hatchet-shaped pitons about 1-inch square. They are designed to bite into thin, shallow cracks. Angle Pitons; used in wide cracks that are flush or offset. Maximum strength is attained only when the legs of the piton are in contact with the opposite sides of the crack. Bong Pitons; are angle pitons that are more than 3.8 cm wide. Bongs usually contain holes to reduce weight and accommodate carabiners. They require less hammering than other pitons. Skyhook (Cliffhangers); Small hooks that cling to tiny rock protrusions, ledges, or flakes. Skyhooks require constant tension and are used in a downward pull direction. The curved end will not straighten under body weight. The base is designed to prevent rotation and aid stability. Ice Pitons; used to establish anchor points for climbers and equipment when conducting operations on ice. (Figure 3-27). They are tubular with a hollow core. The eye is permanently fixed to the top of the ice piton. The tip may be beveled to help grab the ice to facilitate insertion. They can, however, pull out easily on warm days and require a considerable amount of effort to extract in cold temperatures.

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Figure 3-27 Ice piton

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Figure 10-16 Ice piton pair

Pitons have been in use for over 100 years. Although still available, pitons are not used as often as other types of artificial anchors due primarily to their impact on the environment. Most climbers prefer to use chocks, SLCDs and other artificial anchors rather than pitons because they do not scar the rock and are easier to remove. Eye protection should always be worn when driving a piton into rock. Note: The proper use and placement of pitons, as with any artificial anchor, should be studied, practiced, and tested while both feet are firmly on the ground and there is no danger of a fall.

a.Ice Pitons. The ice piton is used to establish anchor points. The ice piton is not seen in modern ice climbing but may still be available to the military. The standard ice piton is made of tubular steel and is 10 inches in length. Ice pitons installed in pairs are a bombproof anchor; however, ice pitons have no threads for friction to hold them in the ice once placed and are removed easily. Safe use of ice pitons requires placement in pairs. Used singularly, ice pitons are a strong anchor but are easily removed, decreasing the perceived security of the anchor. Follow the instructions below for placing ice pitons in pairs.

(1) Cut a horizontal recess into the ice, and also create a vertical surface (two clean surfaces at right angles to each other). (2) Drive one piton into the horizontal surface and another into the vertical surface so that the two pitons intersect at the necessary point (Figure 10-16). (3) Connect the two rings with a single carabiner, ensuring the carabiner is not cross-loaded. Webbing or rope can be used if the rings are turned to the inside of the intersection.

(4) Test the piton pair to ensure it is secure. If it pulls out or appears weak, move to another spot and replace it. The pair of pitons, when placed correctly, are multidirectional.

(5) The effective time and or strength for an ice piton placement is limited. The piton will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the pitons with ice chips once they have been placed. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the pitons should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice piton is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube must be removed before it freezes in position, making further use difficult.

Advantages; some advantages in using pitons are: Depending on type and placement, pitons can support multiple directions of pull. Pitons are less complex than other types of artificial anchors. Pitons work well in thin cracks where other types of artificial anchors do not.

Disadvantages; some disadvantages in using pitons are: During military operations, the distinct sound created when hammering pitons is a tactical disadvantage. Due to the expansion force of emplacing a piton, the rock could spread apart or break causing an unsafe condition. Pitons are more difficult to remove than other types of artificial anchors. Pitons leave noticeable scars on the rock. Pitons are easily dropped if not tied off when being used.

Piton Placement; the proper positioning or placement of pitons is critical. (Figure 5-12 shows examples of piton placement.) Usually a properly sized piton for a rock crack will fit one half to two thirds into the crack before being driven with the piton hammer. This helps ensure the depth of the crack is adequate for the size piton selected. As pitons are driven into the rock the pitch or sound that is made will change with each hammer blow, becoming higher pitched as the piton is driven in. (1) Test the rock for soundness by tapping with the hammer. Driving pitons in soft or rotten rock is not recommended. When this type of rock must be used, clear the loose rock, dirt, and debris from the crack before driving the piton completely in. (2) While it is being driven, attach the piton to a sling with a carabiner (an old carabiner should be used, if available) so that if the piton is knocked out of the crack, it will not be lost. The greater the resistance overcome while driving the piton, the firmer the anchor will be. The holding power depends on the climber placing the piton in a sound crack, and on the type of rock. The piton should not spread the rock, thereby loosening the emplacement. Note: Pitons that have rings as attachment points might not display much change in sound as they are driven in as long as the ring moves freely.

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Figure 5-12 Examples of piton placements

(3) Military mountaineers should practice emplacing pitons using either hand. Sometimes a piton cannot be driven completely into a crack, because the piton is too long. Therefore, it should be tied off using a hero-loop (an endless piece of webbing) (Figure 5-13). Attach this loop to the piton using a girth hitch at the point where the piton enters the rock so that the girth hitch is snug against the rock. Clip a carabiner into the loop.

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Figure 5-13 Hero-loop

Testing. To test pitons pull up about 1 meter of slack in the climbing rope or use a sling. Insert this rope into a carabiner attached to the piton, then grasp the rope at least 1/2 meter from the carabiner. Jerk vigorously upward, downward, to each side, and then outward while observing the piton for movement. Repeat these actions as many times as necessary. Tap the piton to determine if the pitch has changed. If the pitch has changed greatly, drive the piton in as far as possible. If the sound regains its original pitch, the emplacement is probably safe. If the piton shows any sign of moving or if, upon driving it, there is any question of its soundness, drive it into another place. Try to be in a secure position before testing. This procedure is intended for use in testing an omni-directional anchor (one that withstands a pull in any direction). When a directional anchor (pull in one direction) is used, as in most free and direct-aid climbing situations, and when using chocks, concentrate the test in the direction that force will be applied to the anchor.

Removing Pitons Attach a carabiner and sling to the piton before removal to eliminate the chance of dropping and losing it. Tap the piton firmly along the axis of the crack in which it is located. Alternate tapping from both sides while applying steady pressure. Pulling out on the attached carabiner eventually removes the piton (Figure 5-14).

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Figure 5-14 Piton removal

Reusing Pitons. Soft iron pitons that have been used, removed, and straightened may be reused, but they must be checked for strength. In training areas, pitons already in place should not be trusted since weather loosens them in time. Also, they may have been driven poorly the first time. Before use, test them as described above and drive them again until certain of their soundness.

Wired Snow Anchors; (or fluke) provides security for climbers and equipment in operations involving steep ascents by burying the snow anchor into deep snow (Figure 3-28). The fluted anchor portion of the snow anchor is made of aluminum. The wired portion is made of either galvanized steel or stainless steel. Available in various sizes their holding ability generally increases with size. They are available with bent faces, flanged sides, and fixed cables. Common types are: Type I is 22 by 14 cm. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 600 kg.

Type II is 25 by 20 cm. Minimum breaking strength of the swaged wire loop is 1,000 kg. The wired snow anchor should be inspected for cracks, broken wire strands, and slippage of the wire through the swage. Snow Picket; used in constructing anchors in snow and ice (Figure 3-28). Made of a strong aluminum alloy 3 millimeters thick by 4 cm wide, and 45 to 90 cm long. They can be angled or T-section stakes. The picket should be inspected for bends, chips, cracks, mushrooming ends, and other deformities. The ends should be filed smooth not bent or cracked.

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Figure 3-28 Snow anchors, flukes, and pickets

CHOCKS

Chocks; "Chocks" is a generic term used to describe the various types of artificial protection other than bolts or pitons. Chocks are essentially a tapered metal wedge constructed in various sizes to fit different sized openings in the rock (Figure 3-15). The design of a chock will determine whether it fits into one of two categories wedges or cams. A wedge holds by wedging into a constricting crack in the rock. A cam holds by slightly rotating in a crack, creating a camming action that lodges the chock in the crack or pocket. Some chocks are manufactured to perform either in the wedging mode or the camming mode. One chock that falls into both categories is the hexagonal-shaped or "hex" chock. They are versatile and come with either a cable loop or is tied with cord or webbing. Most chocks come with a wired loop that is stronger than cord and allows for easier placement. Bigger chocks can be threaded with cord or webbing if the user ties the chock himself. Care should be taken to place tubing in the chock before threading the cord. The cord used with chocks is designed to be stiffer and stronger than regular cord and is typically made of Kevlar. The advantage of using a chock rather than a piton is that a climber can carry many different sizes and use them repeatedly.

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Figure 3-15 Chocks

Chock craft has been in use for many decades. A natural chockstone, having fallen and wedged in a crack, provides an excellent anchor point. Sometimes these chockstones are in unstable positions, but can be made into excellent anchors with little adjustment. Chock craft is an art that requires time and technique to master—simple in theory, but complex in practice. Imagination and resourcefulness are key principles to chock craft. The skilled climber must understand the application of mechanical advantage, vectors, and other forces that affect the belay chain in a fall.

Advantages. The advantages of using chocks are:

Tactically quiet installation and recovery.

Usually easy to retrieve and, unless severely damaged, are reusable.

Light to carry.

Easy to insert and remove.

Minimal rock scarring as opposed to pitons.

Sometimes can be placed where pitons cannot (expanding rock flakes where pitons would further weaken the rock).

Disadvantages. The disadvantages of using chocks are:

May not fit in thin cracks, which may accept pitons.

Often provide only one direction of pull.

Practice and experience necessary to become proficient in proper placement.

Placement. The principles of placing chocks are to find a crack with a constriction at some point, place a chock of appropriate size above and behind the constriction, and set the chock by jerking down on the chock loop (Figure 5-15). Maximum surface contact with a tight fit is critical. Chocks are usually good for a single direction of pull.

Figure 5-15 Chock placements

(1) Avoid cracks that have crumbly (soft) or deteriorating rock, if possible. Some cracks may have loose rock, grass, and dirt, which should be removed before placing the chock. Look for a constriction point in the crack, then select a chock to fit it. (2) When selecting a chock, choose one that has as much surface area as possible in contact with the rock. A chock resting on one small crystal or point of rock is likely to be unsafe. A chock that sticks partly out of the crack is avoided. Avoid poor protection. Ensure that the chock has a wire or runner long enough; extra ropes, cord, or webbing may be needed to extend the length of the runner. (3) End weighting of the placement helps to keep the protection in position. A carabiner often provides enough weight (4) Parallel-sided cracks without constrictions are a problem. Chocks designed to be used in this situation rely on camming principles to remain emplaced. Weighting the emplacement with extra hardware is often necessary to keep the chocks from dropping out.

(a) Emplace the wedge-shaped chock above and behind the constriction; seat it with a sharp downward tug.

(b) Place a camming chock with its narrow side into the crack, then rotate it to the attitude it will assume under load; seat it with a sharp downward tug.

Testing After seating a chock, test it to ensure it remains in place. A chock that falls out when the climber moves past it is unsafe and offers no protection. To test it, firmly pull the chock in every anticipated direction of pull. Some chock placements fail in one or more directions; therefore, use pairs of chocks in opposition.

Three-Point Camming Device; the device's unique design allows it to be used both as a camming piece and a wedging piece (Figure 3-16). Because of this design it is extremely versatile and, when used in the camming mode, will fit a wide range of cracks.

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Figure 3-16 Three-point camming device

Camming Devices;

Spring-Loaded Camming Devices; (SLCDs) (Figure 3-17) provide convenient, reliable placement in cracks where standard chocks are not practical (parallel or flaring cracks or cracks under roofs). SLCDs have three or four cams rotating around a single or double axis with a rigid or semi-rigid point of attachment. These are placed quickly and easily, saving time and effort. Fits a wide range of crack widths due to the rotating cam heads. The shafts may be rigid metal or semi-rigid cable loops. The flexible cable reduces the risk of stem breakage over an edge in horizontal placements.

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Figure 3-17 Spring-loaded camming devices

SPRING-LOADED CAMMING DEVICE

The SLCD offers quick and easy placement of artificial protection. It is well suited in awkward positions and difficult placements, since it can be emplaced with one hand. It can usually be placed quickly and retrieved easily (Figure 5-16).

a. To emplace an SLCD hold the device in either hand like a syringe, pull the retractor bar back, place the device into a crack, and release the retractor bar. The SLCD holds well in parallel-sided hand- and fist-sized cracks. Smaller variations are available for finger-sized cracks.

b. Careful study of the crack should be made before selecting the device for emplacement. It should be placed so that it is aligned in the direction of force applied to it. It should not be placed any deeper than is needed for secure placement, since it may be impossible to reach the extractor bar for removal. An SLCD should be extended with a runner and placed so that the direction of pull is parallel to the shaft; otherwise, it may rotate and pull out. The versions that have a semi-rigid wire cable shaft allow for greater flexibility and usage, without the danger of the shaft snapping off in a fall.

BOLTS

Bolts; are screw-like shafts that are drilled into rock to provide protection (Figure 3-19). The two types are contraction bolts and expansion bolts. Contraction bolts are squeezed together when driven into a rock. Expansion bolts press around a surrounding sleeve to form a snug fit into a rock. Bolts require drilling a hole into a rock, which is time-consuming, exhausting, and extremely noisy. A hanger (for carabiner attachment) and nut are placed on the bolt. The bolt is then inserted and driven into the hole. Because of this requirement, a hand drill must be carried in addition to a piton hammer. Hand drills (also called star drills) are available in different sizes, brands, and weights. A hand drill should have a lanyard to prevent loss. Self-driving bolts are quicker and easier to emplace. These require a hammer, bolt driver, and drilling anchor, which is driven into the rock. A bolt is hammered only when it is the nail or self-driving type. A bolt and carrier are then secured to the emplaced drilling anchor. All metal surfaces should be smooth and free of rust, corrosion, dirt, and moisture. Burrs, chips, and rough spots should be filed smooth and wire-brushed or rubbed clean with steel wool. Items that are cracked or warped indicate excessive wear and should be discarded. Once emplaced, bolts are the most secure protection for a multidirectional pull. Bolts should be used only when chocks and pitons cannot be emplaced.

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Figure 3-19 Bolts and hangers

Bolts are often used in fixed-rope installations and in aid climbing where cracks are not available.

Bolts provide one of the most secure means of establishing protection. The rock should be inspected for evidence of crumbling, flaking, or cracking, and should be tested with a hammer. Emplacing a bolt with a hammer and a hand drill is a time-consuming and difficult process that requires drilling a hole in the rock deeper than the length of the bolt. This normally takes more than 20 minutes for one hole. Electric or even gas-powered drills can be used to greatly shorten drilling time. However, their size and weight can make them difficult to carry on the climbing route.

A hanger (carrier) and nut are placed on the bolt, and the bolt is inserted and then driven into the hole. A climber should never hammer on a bolt to test or "improve" it, since this permanently weakens it. Bolts should be used with carriers, carabiners, and runners. When using bolts, the climber uses a piton hammer and hand drill with a masonry bit for drilling holes. Some versions are available in which the sleeve is hammered and turned into the rock (self-drilling), which bores the hole. Split bolts and expanding sleeves are common bolts used to secure hangers and carriers (Figure 5-17). Surgical tubing is useful in blowing dust out of the holes. Nail type bolts are emplaced by driving the nail with a hammer to expand the sleeve against the wall of the drilled hole. Safety glasses should always be worn when emplacing bolts.

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Figure 5-17 Bolt with expanding sleeve

Ice Screws

Ice Screws; are made of chrome-molybdenum steel and vary in lengths from 11 cm to 40 cm (Figure 3-26). The eye is permanently affixed to the top of the ice screw. The tip consists of milled or hand-ground teeth, which create sharp points to grab the ice when being emplaced. Use right-hand threads to penetrate the ice when turned clockwise.

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Figure 3-26 Ice screws

Choose a screw with a large thread count and large hollow opening. The close threads will allow for ease in turning and better strength. A file may be used to sharpen the ice screw points. The large hollow opening will allow snow and ice to slide through when turning. Type I is 17 cm in length with a hollow inner tube. Type II is 22 cm in length with a hollow inner tube. Other variations are hollow alloy screws that have a tapered shank with external threads, which are driven into ice and removed by rotation. Steel wool should be rubbed on rusted surfaces and a thin coat of oil applied when storing steel ice screws.

Figure 10-17. Placement of ice screw using the pick.

(3) Turn the screw until the eye or the hanger of the ice screw is flush with the ice and pointing down. The screw should be placed at an angle 90 to 100 degrees from the lower surface. Use either your hand or the pick of the ice ax to screw it in. If you have a short ax (70 centimeters or less), you may be able to use the spike in the eye or hanger to ease the turning. (Remember that you may only have use of one hand at this point depending on your stance and the angle of the terrain.) (4) As with ice pitons, melting of the ice around a screw over a period of time must be considered. The effective time and or strength of an ice screw placement is limited. The screw will heat from solar radiation, or the ice may crack or soften. Solar radiation can be nearly eliminated by covering the screw with ice chips once it has been emplaced. If repeated use is necessary for one installation, such as top roping, the screws should be inspected frequently and relocated when necessary. When an ice screw is removed, the ice that has accumulated in the tube, must be removed before further use.

The ice screw is the most common type of ice protection and has replaced the ice piton for the most part (Figure 10-17). Some screws have longer "hangers" or handles, which allow them to be easily twisted into position by hand. Place ice screws as follows: (1) Clear away all rotten ice from the surface and make a small hole with the ax pick to start the ice screw in. (2) Force the ice screw in until the threads catch.

ASCENDERS

Ascenders; may be used in other applications such as a personal safety or hauling line cam. All modern ascenders work on the principle of using a cam-like device to allow movement in one direction. (Figure 3-22). For difficult vertical terrain, two ascenders work best. For lower angle movement, one ascender is sufficient. Most manufacturers make ascenders as a right and left-handed pair.

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Figure 3-22 Ascenders

Pulleys; used to change direction in rope systems and to create mechanical advantage in hauling systems. They should accommodate the largest diameter of rope being used. Pulleys are made with several bearings, different-sized sheaves (wheel), and metal alloy side plates (Figure 3-23). Plastic pulleys should always be avoided. The side plate should rotate on the pulley axle to allow the pulley to be attached at any point along the rope. For best results, the sheave diameter must be at least four times larger than the rope's diameter to maintain high rope strength.

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Figure 3-23 Pulley

Belay Devices; Note: All belay devices can also be used as descending devices. Belay devices range from the least equipment intensive (the body belay) to high-tech metal alloy pieces of equipment. Regardless of the belay device choosen, the basic principal remains the same friction around or through the belay device controls the ropes' movement. Belay devices are divided into three categories: the slot, the tuber, and the mechanical camming device (Figure 3-20). The slot piece of equipment that attaches to a locking carabiner in the harness; a bight of rope slides through the slot and into the carabiner for the belay. The most common slot type belay device is the Sticht plate.

The tuber is used exactly like the slot but its shape is more like a cone or tube. The mechanical camming device is a manufactured piece of equipment that attaches to the harness with a locking carabiner. The rope is routed through this device so that when force is applied the rope is cammed into a highly frictioned position.

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Figure 3-20 Slot, tuber, mechanical camming device

Descenders; One piece of equipment used for generations as a descender is the carabiner. A figure-eight is another useful piece of equipment and can be used in conjunction with the carabiner for descending (Figure 3-21).

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Figure 3-21 Figure-eights

Carabiners; is the connection between the climber, his rope, and the pitons attached to the mountain. Basic shapes, the oval, the D-shaped, and pear-shaped are just some types. Most models can be made with or without a locking mechanism for the gate opening (Figure 3-11). With a locking mechanism, it is referred to as a locking carabiner. When using a carabiner, great care should be taken to avoid loading the carabiner on its minor axis and to avoid three-way loading (Figure 3-12). Overall areas referred to as major axis, minor axis, and the gate.

Note: Great care should be used to ensure all carabiner gates are closed and locked during use.

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Figure 3-11 Nonlocking and locking carabiners

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Figure 3-12 Major and minor axes and three-way loading

The major difference between the oval and the D-shaped carabiner is strength. Because of the design of the D-shaped carabiner, the load is angled onto the spine of the carabiner thus keeping it off the gate. The down side is that racking any gear or protection on the D-shaped carabiner is difficult because the angle of the carabiner forces all the gear together making it impossible to separate quickly.

The pear-shaped carabiner, specifically the locking version, is excellent for clipping a descender or belay device to the harness. They work well with the munter hitch belaying knot.

CLIMBING SOFTWARE

Climbing software refers to rope, cord, webbing, and harnesses. Should only be used if it has the UIAA certificate of safety. UIAA is the organization that oversees the testing of mountaineering equipment. It is based in Paris, France, and comprises several commissions.

Ropes and Cord; the construction technique is referred to as Kernmantle, which is, essentially, a core of nylon fibers protected by a woven sheath, similar to parachute or 550 cord (Figure 3-8).

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Figure 3-8 Kernmantle construction

Ropes come in two types: static and dynamic. This refers to their ability to stretch under tension. A static rope has very little stretch, perhaps as little as one to two % and is best used in rope installations. A dynamic rope is most useful for climbing and general mountaineering. Its ability to stretch up to 1/3 of its overall length makes it the right choice any time the user might take a fall. Dynamic and static ropes come in various diameters and lengths. For most military applications, a standard 10.5- or 11-mm by 50-meter dynamic rope and 11-mm by 45-meter static rope will be sufficient. When choosing dynamic rope, factors include intended use, impact force, abrasion resistance, and elongation. Cord or small diameter rope is indispensable its many uses make it a valuable piece of equipment. All cord is static and constructed in the same manner as larger rope. If used for Prusik knots, the cord's diameter should be 5 to 7 mm when used on an 11-mm rope.

Webbing and Slings; Loops of tubular webbing or cord, called slings or runners, are the simplest pieces of equipment and some of the most useful. Uses are endless, and they are a critical link between the climber, the rope, carabiners, and anchors. Runners are predominately made from either 9/16-inch or 1-inch tubular webbing and are either tied or sewn by a manufacturer (Figure 3-9). Runners can also be made from a high-performance fiber known as spectra, which is stronger, more durable, and less susceptible to ultraviolet deterioration. Runners should be retired regularly following the same considerations used to retire a rope. For most military applications, a combination of different lengths of runners is adequate. Tied runners advantages over sewn runners are inexpensive to make, can be untied and threaded around natural anchors, and can be untied and retied to other pieces of webbing to create extra long runners. Sewn runners have their own advantages they tend to be stronger, are usually lighter, and have less bulk than the tied version. Also eliminate a major concern with the homemade knotted runner the possibility of the knot untying. Sewn runners standard lengths: 2 inches, 4 in, 12 in, and 24 in. Standard widths: 9/16 in, 11/16 in, and 1 in.

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Figure 3-9 Tied or sewn runners

ROPE MANAGEMENT AND KNOTS

TERMINOLOGY

When using ropes, understanding basic terminology is important. The terms explained in this section are the most commonly used in military mountaineering. (Figure 4-2 illustrates some of these terms.)

Bight; is a simple bend of rope in which the rope does not cross itself.

Loop; is a bend of a rope in which the rope does cross itself.

Half Hitch; is a loop that runs around an object in such a manner as to lock or secure itself.

Turn; wraps around an object, providing 360-degree contact.

Round Turn; wraps around an object one and one-half times. A round turn is used to distribute the load over a small diameter anchor (3 inches or less). It may also be used around larger diameter anchors to reduce the tension on the knot, or provide added friction.

Running End; is the loose or working end of the rope.

Standing Part; is the static, stationary, or nonworking end of the rope.

Lay; is the direction of twist used in construction of the rope.

Pigtail; (tail) is the portion of the running end of the rope between the safety knot and the end of the rope.

Dress; is the proper arrangement of all the knot parts, removing unnecessary kinks, twists, and slack so that all rope parts of the knot make contact.

All knots are divided into 4 classes: Class I joining knots, Class II anchor knots, Class III middle rope knots, and Class IV special knots. The variety of knots, bends, bights, and hitches is almost endless. These classes of knots are intended only as a general guide since some of the knots discussed may be appropriate in more than one class.

A good knot must be easy to tie, hold without slipping, and be easy to untie. The choice of the best knot, bend, or hitch to use depends largely on the job it has to do (Figure 12-10). Always follow this rule: never tie a knot on which you are not willing to stake your life. Each of the three terms--knot, bend, and hitch--has a specific definition. In a knot, a line is usually bent or tied to itself, forming an eye or a knob or securing a cord or line around an object, such as a package. In its noun form, a bend ordinarily is that used to join the ends of two lines together. In its verb form, bend means the act of joining; bent is the past tense of bend. A hitch differs from a knot and a bend in that it ordinarily is tied to a ring, around a spar or stanchion, or around another line. In other words, it is not merely tied back on itself to form an eye or to bend two lines together. Tying a knot, bend, or hitch in a line weakens it because the fibers are bent sharply, causing the line to lose varying degrees of its efficiency or strength. A general rule to follow is to use a knot, bend, or hitch for temporary work and use a splice for permanent work because it retains more of the line's strength.

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Figure 12-10 Elements of the Knot, Bend, and Hitch

Figure 4-2 Examples of roping terminology

Packaging; new rope comes from the manufacturer in different configurations boxed on a spool in various lengths, or coiled and bound in some manner. Precut ropes are usually packaged in a protective cover such as plastic or burlap. Do not remove the protective cover until the rope is ready for use.

Securing the Ends of the Rope: if still on a spool, the rope must be cut to the desired length. All ropes will fray at the ends unless they are bound or seared. Both static and dynamic rope ends are secured in the same manner. The ends must be heated to the melting point so as to attach the inner core strands to the outer sheath. By fusing the two together, the sheath cannot slide backward or forward. Ensure that this is only done to the ends of the rope. The ends may also be dipped in enamel or lacquer. Do not splice ropes for use in mountaineering.

Never cut a line or leave the end of a line dangling loose without a whipping to prevent it from unlaying. A line without a whipping will unlay of its own accord. A frayed line is a painful sight to a good seaman. Whenever a line or hawser has to be cut, whippings should be put on first. Put one whipping on each side of the cut. To prevent fraying, a temporary or plain whipping can be put on with any type of cordage, even with rope yarn. Figure 12-6 shows one of several methods that can be used for putting a temporary whipping on a line.
Do the following to make a temporary whipping (see also Figure 12-6). Step 1. Lay the end of the whipping along the line and bind it down with three or four round turns. Step 2. Then lay the other end on the opposite way.

Step 3. Bind it with a bight of the whipping. Step 4. Then take a couple more turns. Step 5. Take the bitter end of the whipping and pull it tight.

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Figure 12-6 plain or temporary whipping

12-30. as its name implies, a permanent whipping is put on to stay. One way to put on a permanent whipping is with a needle (Figure 12-7) and a sewing palm (Figure 12-8). Sewing palms are made for both right- and left-handed people. The width of the permanent whipping should equal the diameter of the line. Two whippings are recommended. The space between the two whippings should be six times the width of the first whipping.

Figure 12-7 Short Spur Needle

Figure 12-8 Sewing Palm
for Rope Work

12-31. Do the following steps to make a permanent whipping (see also Figure 12-9).
Note: The needle is threaded with sail twine, doubled. Figure 12-9 also shows a single strand for clearness.

Step 1. Push the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands on the other side.

Step 2. Wind the turns toward the bitter end. The number of turns or the width of the whipping will depend on the diameter of the line. Step 3. Push the needle through the middle of a strand so that it comes out between two strands again. Step 4. Then go up and down between strands so as to put a cross-seizing between each pair of strands.

Step 5. Pull each cross-seizing taut before taking the next one. Step 6. Have the thread come out through the middle of a strand the last time you push it through so that after you knot and cut the thread, the strand will hold the end of the twine.

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Figure 12-9 Making a Permanent Whipping

Storage; areas should be relatively cool with low humidity levels to prevent mildew or rotting. Rope may also be loosely stacked and placed in a rope bag and stored on a shelf or loosely coiled and hung on wooden pegs rather than nails or other metal objects. Always keep the rope as dry as possible. Should the rope become wet, hang it in large loops off the ground. Never dry a rope with high heat or in direct sunlight. Do not mark ropes with paints or allow them to come in contact with oils or petroleum products. Never leave a rope knotted or tightly stretched for longer than necessary. Do not step on or drag on the ground unnecessarily. Never use a mountaineering rope for any purpose except mountaineering. Periodic washing to remove dirt and grit, use only front loading machines on a gentle cycle, in cold water with a nylon safe soap, never bleach or harsh cleansers rinse thoroughly. Commercial rope washers are made from short pieces of modified pipe that connect to faucet. Pinholes within the pipe force water to circulate around and scrub the rope as you slowly feed it through the washer.

The climber’s lifeline, select the proper rope for the task to be accomplished according to type, diameter, length, and tensile strength. It is important to prepare and inspect all ropes before mission and after each use, especially when working around rock with sharp edges. Avoid rope preparation in the field. Each rope well have a rope log (DA Form 5752-R, Rope History, Usage and quality of maintenance) aka safety record. Should be annotated each time the rope is used. It should annotate use (service life depends on the frequency of use i.e. dates, applications i.e. rappelling, climbing, rope installations, speed of descent, number of falls, surface abrasion i.e. frayed or cut spots, mildew or rot, or defects in construction (new rope) terrain, climate/weather. Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) tends to deteriorate nylon over time. This becomes important if rope installations are left in place over a number of months). Although the core of the kernmantle rope cannot be seen, it can be damaged without damaging the sheath. Check a kernmantle rope by inspecting the sheath while the rope is being coiled. Be aware of how the rope feels. Immediately note and tie off any lumps or depressions felt. Damage to the core usually consists of filaments or yarn breakage that results in a slight retraction. If enough strands rupture, a localized reduction in the diameter of the rope results in a depression that can be felt or even seen. Check any other suspected areas further by putting them under tension (the weight of one person standing on a Prusik tensioning system is about maximum). This procedure will emphasize the lump or depression by separating the broken strands and enlarging the dip. Many dynamic kernmantle ropes are quite soft. They may retain an indention after an impact or under normal use without any trauma to the core. Damage to the sheath does not always mean damage to the core. While in use, do not allow the rope to come into contact with sharp edges. Nylon rope is easily cut, particularly when under tension. If the rope must be used over a sharp edge, pad the edge for protection. Never allow one rope to continuously rub another. Rope-on-rope contact with nylon rope is extremely dangerous the heat will melt the nylon.

COILING AND CARRYING THE ROPE

The ease and speed of rope deployment and recovery greatly depends upon technique and practice.

Use the mountain or butterfly coil to coil and carry the rope. Results minimum amount of kinks, twists, and knots during deployment. Mountain coil; to start grasp the rope approximately 1 meter from the end with one hand. Run the other hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched. Grasping the rope firmly, bring the hands together forming a loop, which is laid in the hand closest to the end of the rope. This is repeated, forming uniform loops that run in a clockwise direction. The rope may be given a 1/4 twist as each loop is formed to overcome any tendency for the rope to twist or form figure-eights. (1) In finishing the mountain coil, form a bight approximately 30 cm long with the starting end of the rope and lay it along the top of the coil. Uncoil the last loop and, using this length of the rope, begin making wraps around the coil and the bight, wrapping toward the closed end of the bight and making the first wrap bind across itself so as to lock it into place. Make 6 to 8 wraps to secure the coil, and then route the end of the rope through the closed end of the bight. Pull the running end of the bight tight, securing the coil. (2) May be carried either in the pack (by forming a figure eight), doubling it and placing it under the flap, or by placing it over the shoulder and under the opposite arm, slung across the chest. (Figure 4-3 shows how to coil a mountain coil.)

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Figure 4-3 Mountain coil

Butterfly Coil; is the quickest and easiest technique for coiling (Figure 4-4).

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Figure 4-4 Butterfly coil

(1) To start the double butterfly, grasp both ends of the rope and begin back feeding. Find the center of the rope forming a bight. With the bight in the left hand, grasp both ropes and slide the right hand out until there is approximately one arms length of rope. Place the doubled rope over the head, draping it around the neck and on top of the shoulders. Ensure that it hangs no lower than the waist. With the rest of the doubled rope in front of you, make doubled bights placing them over the head in the same manner as the first bight. Coil alternating from side to side (left to right, right to left) while maintaining equal-length bights. Continue coiling until approximately two arm-lengths of rope remain. Remove the coils from the neck and shoulders carefully, and hold the center in one hand. Wrap the two ends around the coils a minimum of three doubled wraps, ensuring that the first wrap locks back on itself. (2) Tie-off and Carrying. Take a doubled bight from the loose ends of rope and pass it through the apex of the coils. Pull the loose ends through the doubled bight and dress it down. Place an overhand knot in the loose ends, dressing it down to the apex of the bight securing coils. Ensure that the loose ends do not exceed the length of the coils. In this configuration the coiled rope is secure enough for hand carrying or carrying in a rucksack, or for storage. (Figure 4-5 shows a butterfly coil tie-off.)

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Figure 4-5 Butterfly coil tie-off

Coiling Smaller Diameter Rope; you may using the butterfly or mountain coil depending on the length of the rope. Pieces 25 ft and shorter (also known as cordage, sling rope, utility cord) may be coiled so that they can be hung from the harness. Bring the two ends of the rope together, ensuring no kinks are in the rope. Place the ends of the rope in the left hand with the two ends facing the body. Coil the doubled rope in a clockwise direction forming 6- to 8-inch coils (coils may be larger depending on the length of rope) until an approximate 12-inch bight is left. Wrap that bight around the coil, ensuring that the first wrap locks on itself. Make three or more wraps. Feed the bight up through the bights formed at the top of the coil. Dress it down tightly. Now the piece of rope may be hung from a carabiner on the harness.

Uncoiling, Back-feeding, and Stacking/laying; when the rope is needed for use, it must be uncoiled and stacked on the ground properly to avoid kinks and snarls. (1) Untie the tie-off and stack the coil on the ground. Back-feed the rope to minimize kinks and snarls. (This is also useful when the rope is to be moved a short distance and coiling is not desired.) Take one end of the rope in the left hand and run the right hand along the rope until both arms are outstretched. Next, lay the end of the rope in the left hand on the ground. With the left hand, re-grasp the rope next to the right hand and continue stacking the rope on the ground. (2) The rope should be stacked in a neat pile on the ground to prevent it from becoming tangled and knotted when throwing or feeding it. This technique can also be started using the right hand.

THROWING THE ROPE;

Before throwing the rope, it must be properly managed to prevent it from tangling during deployment. It should first be anchored to prevent complete loss of the rope over the edge when it is thrown. Several techniques can be used when throwing a rope. Personal preference and situational and environmental conditions should be taken into consideration. Back feed and neatly stack rope into coils beginning with the anchored end working toward the running end. Once stacked, make 6 to 8 smaller coils in the left hand. Pick up the rest of the larger coils in the right hand. The arm should be generally straight when throwing. You may throw underhanded or over handed depending on obstacles around the site. Make a few preliminary swings to ensure a smooth throw (OBTIONAL as soon as the rope leaves the hand, the thrower should sound off with a warning of "ROPE" to alert anyone below the site). Throw large coils in the right hand first. Throw up and out. A slight twist of the wrist, so that the palm of the hand faces up as the rope is thrown, allows the coils to separate easily a smooth follow through is essential. When a slight tug on the left hand is felt, toss the 6 to 8 smaller coils out. This will prevent the ends of the rope from becoming entangled with the rest of the coils as they deploy. Another technique; anchor, back feed, and stack the rope as before. Take the end of the rope and make 6 to 8 helmet-size coils in the right hand (more may be needed depending on the length of the rope). Assume a "quarterback" simulated stance. Aiming just above the horizon, throw the rope over handed up and out toward the horizon. When windy weather conditions prevail, adjustments must be made. In a strong cross wind, the rope should be thrown angled into the wind so that it will land on the desired target. The stronger the wind, the harder the rope must be thrown to compensate.

SQUARE KNOT; used to tie the ends of two ropes of equal diameter (Figure 4-6). It is a joining knot Its strength is 45 percent. STEPS 1. Holding one working end in each hand, place the working end in the right hand over the one in the left hand. 2. Pull it under and back over the top of the rope in the left hand. 3. Place the working end in the left hand over the one in the right hand and repeat 2. STEP 4. Dress the knot down and secure it with an overhand knot on each side of the square knot. To avoid a "granny" or a "fool's knot" which will slip, follow this procedure. Take the end in your right hand and say "over and under." Pass it over and under the part in your left hand as shown in Figure 12-13. With your right hand, take the end that was in your left hand. This time say to yourself "under and over." Pass it under and over the part in your left hand.

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Figure 4-6 Square knots

Checkpoints; 1There are two interlocking bights. 2 The running end and standing part are on the same side of the bight formed by the other rope. 3 The running ends are parallel to and on the same side of the standing ends with 4-inch minimum pig tails after the overhand safeties are tied. Figure 12-13 shows that the end and standing part of one line come out on the same side of the bight formed by the other line. This knot will not hold if the lines are wet or are of unequal sizes. It tightens under strain but can be untied by grasping the ends of the two bights and pulling the knot apart.

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Figure 12-13 Square Knots

OVERHAND KNOT

It is the basis for all knots. It is the simplest and the most commonly used. It may be used to prevent the end of a line from untwisting, to form a knot at the end of a line, or to be part of another knot. When tied to the end of a line, this knot will prevent it from running through a block, hole, or other knot.

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Figure 12-11 Overhand Knot

FIGURE EIGHT KNOT

Used to form a larger knot at the end of a line. To prevent a line from running through a block. To tie this knot, form an overhand loop in the line and pass the running end under the standing part, up the other side, and through the loop. Tighten the knot by pulling on the running end and the standing part.

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Figure 12-12 Figure Eight Knot

FISHERMAN’S KNOT is used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same diameter (Figure 4-7). It is a joining knot. STEPS 1. Tie an overhand knot in one end of the rope. 2. Pass the working end of the other rope through the first overhand knot. Tie an overhand knot around the standing part of the first rope with the working end of the second rope. 3. Tightly dress down each overhand knot and tightly draw the knots together.

Figure 4-7 Fisherman’s knot

Checkpoints; 1 the two separate overhand knots are tied tightly around the long, standing part of the opposing rope. 2 The two overhand knots are drawn snug. 3 Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.

DOUBLE FISHERMAN’S KNOT; (aka double English or grapevine) used to tie two ropes of the same or approximately the same diameter (Figure 4-8). It is a joining knot. STEPS 1 with the working end of one rope, tie two wraps around the standing part of another rope. 2. Insert the working end (STEP 1) back through the two wraps and draw it tight. 3. with the working end of the other rope, which contains the standing part (STEPS 1 and 2), tie two wraps around the standing part of the other rope (the working end in STEP 1). Insert the working end back through the two wraps and draw tight. 4. Pull on the opposing ends to bring the two knots together.

Figure 4-8 Double fisherman’s knot

Checkpoints; 1Two double overhand knots securing each other as the standing parts of the rope are pulled apart.

2 Four rope parts on one side of the knot form two "x" patterns, four rope parts on the other side of the knot are parallel. 3 Ends of rope exit knot opposite each other with 4-inch pigtails.

FIGURE-EIGHT BEND used to join the ends of two ropes of equal or unequal diameter within 5-mm difference (Figure 4-9). STEPS 1 grasp the top of a 2-foot bight. 2 with the other hand, grasp the running end (short end) and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end. 3 place the running end through the loop just formed creating an in-line figure eight. 4 route the running end of the other ripe back through the figure eight starting from the original rope’s running end. Trace the original knot to the standing end. 5 remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers. Dress the knot down.

Figure 4-9 Figure-eight bend

Checkpoints; 1 there is a figure eight with two ropes running side by side. 2 the running ends are on opposite sides of the knot. 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

WATER KNOT used to attach two webbing ends (Figure 4-10). It is also called a ring bend, overhand retrace, or tape knot. It is used in runners and harnesses and is a joining knot. STEPS 1. Tie an overhand knot in one of the ends. 2 feed the other end back through the knot, following the path of the first rope in reverse. 3 draw tight and pull all of the slack out of the knot. The remaining tails must extend at least 4 inches beyond the knot in both directions.

Figure 4-10 Water knot

Checkpoints; 1 there are two overhand knots, one retracing the other. 2 there is no slack in the knot, and the working ends come out of the knot in opposite directions. 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

BOWLINE used to tie the end of a rope around an anchor. It may also be used to tie a single fixed loop in the end of a rope (Figure 4-11). It is an anchor knot. STEPS 1 bring the working end of the rope around the anchor, from right to left (as the climber faces the anchor). 2 form an overhand loop in the standing part of the rope (on the climber’s right) toward the anchor. 3 reach through the loop and pull up a bight. 4 place the working end of the rope (on the climber’s left) through the bight, and bring it back onto itself. Now dress the knot down. 5 form an overhand knot with the tail from the bight.

Figure 4-11 Bowline knot

Checkpoints; 1 the bight is locked into place by a loop. 2 the short portion of the bight is on the inside and on the loop around the anchor (or inside the fixed loop). 3 there is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after tying the overhand safety.

ROUND TURN AND TWO HALF HITCHES used to tie the end of a rope to an anchor, and it must have constant tension (Figure 4-12). It is an anchor knot. STEP 1. Route the rope around the anchor from right to left and wrap down (must have two wraps in the rear of the anchor, and one in the front). Run the loop around the object to provide 360-degree contact, distributing the load over the anchor. STEP 2. Bring the working end of the rope left to right and over the standing part, forming a half hitch (first half hitch). STEP 3. Repeat STEP 2 (last half hitch has a 4 inch pigtail). STEP 4. Dress the knot down.

Figure 4-12 Round turn and two half hitches

Checkpoints; (1) A complete round turn should exist around the anchor with no crosses. (2) Two half hitches should be held in place by a diagonal locking bar with no less than a 4-inch pigtail remaining.

CLOVE HITCH is an anchor knot that can be used in the middle of the rope as well as at the end (Figure 4-14). The knot must have constant tension on it once tied to prevent slipping. It can be used as either an anchor or middle of the rope knot, depending on how it is tied.

(1) Middle of the Rope. STEP 1. Hold rope in both hands, palms down with hands together. Slide the left hand to the left from 20 to 25 centimeters. STEP 2. Form a loop away from and back toward the right. STEP 3. Slide the right hand from 20 to 25 centimeters to the right. Form a loop inward and back to the left hand. STEP 4. Place the left loop on top of the right loop. Place both loops over the anchor and pull both ends of the rope in opposite directions. The knot is tied.

(2) End of the Rope.

Note: For instructional purposes, assume that the anchor is horizontal. STEP 1. Place 76 centimeters of rope over the top of the anchor. Hold the standing end in the left hand. With the right hand, reach under the horizontal anchor, grasp the working end, and bring it inward. STEP 2. Place the working end of the rope over the standing end (to form a loop). Hold the loop in the left hand. Place the working end over the anchor from 20 to 25 centimeters to the left of the loop. STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down to the left hand side of the loop under the anchor. Grasp the working end of the rope. Bring the working end up and outward. STEP 4. Dress down the knot.

Figure 4-14 Clove hitches

Checkpoints; (1) the knot has two round turns around the anchor with a diagonal locking bar. (2) The locking bar is facing 90 degrees from the direction of pull. (3) The ends exit l80 degrees from each other. (4) The knot has more than a 4-inch pigtail remaining.

FIGURE-EIGHT RETRACE (REROUTED FIGURE-EIGHT) produces the same result as a figure-eight loop. However, by tying the knot in a retrace, it can be used to fasten the rope to trees or to places where the loop cannot be used (Figure 4-13). It is also called a rerouted figure-eight and is an anchor knot. STEP 1. Use a length of rope long enough to go around the anchor, leaving enough rope to work with. STEP 2. Tie a figure-eight knot in the standing part of the rope, leaving enough rope to go around the anchor. To tie a figure-eight knot form a loop in the rope, wrap the working end around the standing part, and route the working end through the loop. The finished knot is dressed loosely. STEP 3. Take the working end around the anchor point. STEP 4. With the working end, insert the rope back through the loop of the knot in reverse. STEP 5. Keep the original figure eight as the outside rope and retrace the knot around the wrap and back to the long-standing part. STEP 6. Remove all unnecessary twists and crossovers; dress the knot down.

Figure 4-13 Figure-eight retrace

Checkpoints; (1) A figure eight with a doubled rope running side by side, forming a fixed loop around a fixed object or harness. (2) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

WIREMAN’S KNOT forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope (Figure 4-15). It is a middle rope knot.

STEP 1. When tying this knot, face the anchor that the tie-off system will be tied to. Take up the slack from the anchor, and wrap two turns around the left hand (palm up) from left to right. STEP 2. A loop of 30 centimeters is taken up in the second round turn to create the fixed loop of the knot. STEP 3. Name the wraps from the palm to the fingertips: heel, palm, and fingertip. STEP 4. Secure the palm wrap with the right thumb and forefinger, and place it over the heel wrap. STEP 5. Secure the heel wrap and place it over the fingertip wrap. STEP 6. Secure the fingertip wrap and place it over the palm wrap. STEP 7. Secure the palm wrap and pull up to form a fixed loop. STEP 8. Dress the knot down by pulling on the fixed loop and the two working ends. STEP 9. Pull the working ends apart to finish the knot.

Figure 4-15 Wireman’s knot

Checkpoints; (1) The completed knot should have four separate bights locking down on themselves with the fixed loop exiting from the top of the knot and laying toward the near side anchor point. (2) Both ends should exit opposite each other without any bends.

DIRECTIONAL FIGURE-EIGHT forms a single, fixed loop in the middle of the rope that lays back along the standing part of the rope (Figure 4-16). It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Face the far side anchor so that when the knot is tied, it lays inward. STEP 2. Lay the rope from the far side anchor over the left palm. Make one wrap around the palm. STEP 3. With the wrap thus formed, tie a figure-eight knot around the standing part that leads to the far side anchor. STEP 4. When dressing the knot down, the tail and the bight must be together.

Figure 4-16 Directional figure-eight

Checkpoints; (1) The loop should be large enough to accept a carabiner but no larger than a helmet-size loop. (2) The tail and bight must be together. (3) The figure eight is tied tightly. (4) The bight in the knot faces back toward the near side.

BOWLINE-ON-A-BIGHT (TWO-LOOP BOWLINE) used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about twice as long as the finished loops will be.

STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot on a bight. STEP 3. Hold the overhand knot in the left hand so that the bight is running down and outward. STEP 4. Grasp the bight with the right hand; fold it back over the overhand knot so that the overhand knot goes through the bight. STEP 5. From the end (apex) of the bight, follow the bight back to where it forms the cross in the overhand knot. Grasp the two ropes that run down and outward and pull up, forming two loops. STEP 6. Pull the two ropes out of the overhand knot and dress the knot down. STEP 7. A final dress is required: grasp the ends of the two fixed loops and pull, spreading them apart to ensure the loops do not slip.

Figure 4-17 Bowline-on-a-bight

Checkpoints; (1) there are two fixed loops that will not slip. (2) There are no twists in the knot. (3) A double loop is held in place by a bight.

TWO-LOOP FIGURE-EIGHT used to form two fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure 4-18.) It is a middle rope knot. STEP 1. Using a doubled rope, form an 18-inch bight in the left hand with the running end facing to the left. STEP 2. Grasp the bight with the right hand and make a 360-degree turn around the standing end in a counterclockwise direction. STEP 3. With the working end, form another bight and place that bight through the loop just formed in the left hand. STEP 4. Hold the bight with the left hand, and place the original bight (moving toward the left hand) over the knot. STEP 5. Dress the knot down.

Figure 4-18 Two-loop figure-eight

Checkpoints; (1) There is a double figure-eight knot with two loops that share a common locking bar. (2) The two loops must be adjustable by means of a common locking bar. (3) The common locking bar is on the bottom of the double figure-eight knot.

FIGURE-EIGHT LOOP (FIGURE-EIGHT-ON-A-BIGHT) used to form a fixed loop in a rope (Figure 4-19). It is a middle of the rope knot. STEP 1. Form a bight in the rope about as large as the diameter of the desired loop.

STEP 2. With the bight as the working end, form a loop in rope (standing part). STEP 3. Wrap the working end around the standing part 360 degrees and feed the working end through the loop. Dress the knot tightly.

Figure 4-19 Figure-eight loop

Checkpoints; (1) The loop is the desired size. (2) The ropes in the loop are parallel and do not cross over each other.

(3) The knot is tightly dressed.

PRUSIK KNOT used to put a moveable rope on a fixed rope such as a Prusik ascent or a tightening system. This knot can be tied as a middle or end of the rope Prusik. It is a specialty knot.

(1) Middle-of-the-Rope Prusik. The middle-of-the-rope Prusik knot can be tied with a short rope to a long rope as follows (Figure 4-20.): STEP 1. Double the short rope, forming a bight, with the working ends even. Lay it over the long rope so that the closed end of the bight is 12 inches below the long rope and the remaining part of the rope (working ends) is the closest to the climber; spread the working end apart. STEP 2. Reach down through the 12-inch bight. Pull up both of the working ends and lay them over the long rope. Repeat this process making sure that the working ends pass in the middle of the first two wraps. Now there are four wraps and a locking bar working across them on the long rope. STEP 3. Dress the wraps and locking bar down to ensure they are tight and not twisted. Tying an overhand knot with both ropes will prevent the knot from slipping during periods of variable tension.

Figure 4-20 Middle-of-the-rope Prusik

(2) End-of-the-Rope Prusik (Figure 4-21). STEP 1. Using an arm’s length of rope, and place it over the long rope.

STEP 2. Form a complete round turn in the rope. STEP 3. Cross over the standing part of the short rope with the working end of the short rope. STEP 4. Lay the working end under the long rope. STEP 5. Form a complete round turn in the rope, working back toward the middle of the knot. STEP 6. There are four wraps and a locking bar running across them on the long rope. Dress the wraps and locking bar down. Ensure they are tight, parallel, and not twisted. STEP 7. Finish the knot with a bowline to ensure that the Prusik knot will not slip out during periods of varying tension.

Figure 4-21 End-of-the-rope Prusik knot

Checkpoints; (1) Four wraps with a locking bar. (2) The locking bar faces the climber. (3) The knot is tight and dressed down with no ropes twisted or crossed. (4) Other than a finger Prusik, the knot should contain an overhand or bowline to prevent slipping.

BACHMAN KNOT provides a means of using a makeshift mechanized ascender (Figure 4-22). It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. Find the middle of a utility rope and insert it into a carabiner. STEP 2. Place the carabiner and utility rope next to a long climbing rope. STEP 3. With the two ropes parallel from the carabiner, make two or more wraps around the climbing rope and through the inside portion of the carabiner. Note: The rope can be tied into an etrier (stirrup) and used as a Prusik-friction principle ascender.

Checkpoints; (1) The bight of the climbing rope is at the top of the carabiner. (2) The two ropes run parallel without twisting or crossing. (3) Two or more wraps are made around the long climbing rope and through the inside portion of the carabiner.

Figure 4-22 Bachman knot

BOWLINE

12-42. User the bowline to tie a temporary eye in the end of a line. A bowline neither slips nor jams and unties easily. An example of a temporary use is that of tying a heaving line or messenger to a hawser and throwing it to a pier where line handlers can pull the hawser to the pier, using the heaving line or messenger.

12-43. To tie a bowline (Figure 12-15), hold the standing part with your left hand and the running end with your right. Flip an overhand loop in the standing part, and hold the standing part and loop with the thumb and fingers of your left hand. Using your right hand, pass the running end up through the loop, under the standing part, and down through the loop. Its strength is 60 percent.

Figure 12-15. Tying a Bowline

Bowline on a Bight

12-44. A bowline on a bight gives two loops instead of one, neither of which slips. It can be used for the same purpose as a boatswain's chair. It does not leave both hands free, but its twin, nonslipping loops form a comfortable seat. Use the bowline on a bight when:

Strength (greater than a single bowline) is necessary.

A loop is needed at some point in a line other than at the end.

The end of a line is not accessible.

The bowline is easily untied and can be tied at the end of a line by doubling the line for a short section.
12-45. To tie a bowline on a bight (see Figure 12-16) double the line, form an overhand loop, and put the end of the bight through the loop. Put your hand through the bight, take hold of the bight under the loop, and pull it through the first bight to tighten the knot.

Figure 12-16 Typing a Bowline on a Bight

FRENCH BOWLINE

12-46. Use a French bowline as a sling for lifting an injured person. For this purpose, one loop is used as a seat and the other loop is put around the body under the arms, then the knot is drawn tight at the chest. Even an unconscious person can ride up safely in a properly secured French bowline, because his weight keeps the two loops tight so that he will not fall out. It follows, though, that it is necessary to take care not to allow the loop under his arms to catch on any projections. Also use the French bowline where a person is working alone and needs both hands free. The two loops of the knot can be adjusted to the required size. Figure 12-17 shows the step-by-step procedure for tying the French bowline.

Figure 12-17 Typing a French Bowline

BOWLINE-ON-A-COIL is an expedient tie-in used by climbers when a climbing harness is not available (Figure 4-23). It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. With the running end, place 3 feet of rope over your right shoulder. The running end is to the back of the body. STEP 2. Starting at the bottom of your rib cage, wrap the standing part of the rope around your body and down in a clockwise direction four to eight times. STEP 3. With the standing portion of the rope in your left hand, make a clockwise loop toward the body. The standing portion is on the bottom. STEP 4. Ensuring the loop does not come uncrossed, bring it up and under the coils between the rope and your body. STEP 5. Using the standing part, bring a bight up through the loop. Grasp the running end of the rope with the right hand. Pass it through the bight from right to left and back on itself. STEP 6. Holding the bight loosely, dress the knot down by pulling on the standing end. STEP 7. Safety the bowline with an overhand around the top, single coil. Then, tie an overhand around all coils, leaving a minimum 4-inch pigtail.

Checkpoints; (1) A minimum of four wraps, not crossed, with a bight held in place by a loop. (2) The loop must be underneath all wraps. (3) A minimum 4-inch pigtail after the second overhand safety is tied. (4) Must be centered on the mid-line of the body.

Figure 4-23 Bowline-on-a-coil

THREE-LOOP BOWLINE used to form three fixed loops in the middle of a rope (Figure 4-24). It is used in a self-equalizing anchor system. It is a specialty knot. STEP 1. Form an approximate 24-inch bight. STEP 2. With the right thumb facing toward the body, form a doubled loop in the standing part by turning the wrist clockwise. Lay the loops to the right. STEP 3. With the right hand, reach down through the loops and pull up a doubled bight from the standing part of the rope. STEP 4. Place the running end (bight) of the rope (on the left) through the doubled bight from left to right and bring it back on itself. Hold the running end loosely and dress the knot down by pulling on the standing parts. STEP 5. Safety it off with a doubled overhand knot.

Figure 4-24 Three-loop bowline

Checkpoints; (1) There are two bights held in place by two loops. (2) The bights form locking bars around the standing parts. (3) The running end (bight) must be on the inside of the fixed loops. (4) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the double overhand safety knot is tied.

FIGURE-EIGHT SLIP KNOT forms an adjustable bight in a rope (Figure 4-25). It is a specialty knot.

STEP 1. Form a 12-inch bight in the end of the rope. STEP 2. Hold the center of the bight in the right hand. Hold the two parallel ropes from the bight in the left hand about 12 inches up the rope. STEP 3. With the center of the bight in the right hand, twist two complete turns clockwise. STEP 4. Reach through the bight and grasp the long, standing end of the rope. Pull another bight (from the long standing end) back through the original bight. STEP 5. Pull down on the short working end of the rope and dress the knot down. STEP 6. If the knot is to be used in a transport tightening system, take the working end of the rope and form a half hitch around the loop of the figure eight knot.

Figure 4-25 Figure-eight slip knot

Checkpoints; (1) the knot is in the shape of a figure eight. (2) Both ropes of the bight pass through the same loop of the figure eight. (3) The sliding portion of the rope is the long working end of the rope.

TRANSPORT KNOT (OVERHAND SLIP KNOT/MULE KNOT) used to secure the transport tightening system (Figure 4-26). It is simply an overhand slip knot. STEP 1. Pass the running end of the rope around the anchor point passing it back under the standing portion (leading to the far side anchor) forming a loop. STEP 2. Form a bight with the running end of the rope. Pass over the standing portion and down through the loop and dress it down toward the anchor point. STEP 3. Secure the knot by tying a half hitch around the standing portion with the bight.

Figure 4-26 Transport knot

Check Points; (1) There is a single overhand slip knot. (2) The knot is secured using a half hitch on a bight.

(3) The bight is a minimum of 12 inches long.

KLEIMHIEST KNOT provides a moveable, easily adjustable, high-tension knot capable of holding extremely heavy loads while being pulled tight (Figure 4-27). It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1. Using a utility rope or webbing offset the ends by 12 inches. With the ends offset, find the center of the rope and form a bight. Lay the bight over a horizontal rope. STEP 2. Wrap the tails of the utility rope around the horizontal rope back toward the direction of pull. Wrap at least four complete turns. STEP 3. With the remaining tails of the utility rope, pass them through the bight (see STEP 1). STEP 4. Join the two ends of the tail with a joining knot. STEP 5. Dress the knot down tightly so that all wraps are touching. Note: Spectra should not be used for the Kleimhiest knot. It has a low melting point and tends to slip .

Figure 4-27 Kleimhiest knot

Checkpoints; (1) the bight is opposite the direction of pull. (2) All wraps are tight and touching. (3) The ends of the utility rope are properly secured with a joining knot.

FROST KNOT used when working with webbing (Figure 4-28). It is used to create the top loop of an etrier. It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1. Lap one end (a bight) of webbing over the other about 10 to 12 inches. STEP 2. Tie an overhand knot with the newly formed triple-strand webbing; dress tightly.

Figure 4-28 Frost knot

Checkpoints; (1) the tails of the webbing run in opposite directions. (2) Three strands of webbing are formed into a tight overhand knot. (3) There is a bight and tail exiting the top of the overhand knot.

GIRTH HITCH used to attach a runner to an anchor or piece of equipment (Figure 4-29). It is a special-purpose knot. STEP 1: Form a bight. STEP 2: Bring the runner back through the bight. STEP 3: Cinch the knot tightly.

Figure 4-29 Girth hitch

Checkpoint; (1) Two wraps exist with a locking bar running across the wraps. (2) The knot is dressed tightly.

MUNTER HITCH when used in conjunction with a pear-shaped locking carabiner, is used to form a mechanical belay (Figure 4-30). STEP 1. Hold the rope in both hands, palms down about 12 inches apart. STEP 2. With the right hand, form a loop away from the body toward the left hand. Hold the loop with the left hand. STEP 3. With the right hand, place the rope that comes from the bottom of the loop over the top of the loop. STEP 4. Place the bight that has just been formed around the rope into the pear shaped carabiner. Lock the locking mechanism.

Check Points; (1) A bight passes through the carabiner, with the closed end around the standing or running part of the rope. (2) The carabiner is locked.

Figure 4-30 Munter hitch

GUARDE KNOT (ratchet knot, alpine clutch) is a special purpose knot primarily used for hauling systems or rescue (Figure 4-32). The knot works in only one direction and cannot be reversed while under load.

STEP 1. Place a bight of rope into the two anchored carabiners (works best with two like carabiners, preferably ovals). STEP 2. Take a loop of rope from the non-load side and place it down into the opposite cararabiner so that the rope comes out between the two carabiners.

Figure 4-32 Guarde knot

Check Points; (1) when properly dressed, rope can only be pulled in one direction. (2) The knot will not fail when placed under load.

SHEET OR BECKET BEND

Use a single sheet or becket bend to tie two lines of unequal size together and to tie a line to an eye. Always use a double sheet or becket bend to tie the gantline to a boatswain's chair. The single sheet or becket bend will draw tight, but will loosen when the line is slackened. The single sheet or becket bend is stronger than the square knot, with a strength of 55 percent, and is more easily untied than the square knot.

To tie a single sheet or becket bend (Figure 12-14), take a bight in the larger of the two lines. Using the smaller of the two lines, put its end up through the bight. Then put it around the standing part of the larger line first because it will have the strain on it and then around the end of the larger line. Next put the end of the smaller line under its standing part. The strain on the standing part will hold the end. Notice in the double sheet or becket bend that the end of the smaller line goes under its standing part both times.

Figure 12-14 Tying the Single and Double Sheet or Becket Bend

DOUBLE CARRICK BEND

A double carrick bend with its ends seized (Figure 12-18) is recommended for tying together two hawsers. Even after a heavy strain, it is easy to untie because it never draws up. Its strength is 56 percent. However, a double carrick will draw up if the ends are not seized.

Figure 12-18 Tying the Double Carrick Bend

HALF HITCH

Use the half hitch to back up other knots, but tie with the short end of the line. Never tie two half hitches by themselves. Instead, take two round turns so that the strain will be on the line, not the hitches, and then tie the hitches (Figure 12-19).

Figure 12-19 Half Hitch

CLOVE HITCH

The best knot for tying a line to a ring, a spar, or anything that is round is a clove hitch (Figure 12-20). It will not jam or pull out. Its strength is 55 to 60 percent.

Figure 12-20 Clove Hitch

STOPPER HITCH

A possible defect of a clove hitch is that it can slide along the round object to which it is tied. To prevent this, use a stopper hitch (Figure 12-21), commonly called a rolling hitch. When tying, make a turn around the line with the stopper (first view). Pull tight and take another turn. This one must cross the first turn and then pass between the first turn and the stopper (second view). This completes the stopper hitch itself, but it must be stopped off in one of two ways.

Figure 12-21 Stopper Hitch

You may make two or more turns with the lay of the line and then seize the stopper to the line with marline. Another method is to tie a half hitch directly above the rolling hitch (third view), and then take a couple of turns against the lay, and seize the stopper to the line.

STAGE HITCH

Use a stage hitch (Figure 12-22) for working over the side of a vessel. A stage hitch consists of a plank with a wooden horn attached at a right angle to the plank near each end to keep it away from the side. Note that two parts of the line go under the plank. Therefore, the line supports the plank, as well as the horns. This gives more protection to persons working on the stage.

MONKEY FIST

The monkey fist (Figure 12-23) is tied at the end of a heaving line and a weight is put in it so that it can be thrown for a distance with some ease and accuracy. The monkey fist consists of three sets of turns taken at right angles to each other. For clarity, Figure 12-23 shows only three turns in each set; four turns per set are more likely to be used. To tie a monkey fist, start as in view 1, taking a set of turns around your hand. Then slip this set off your hand, hold it as shown in view 2, and pass the running end over your thumb and under and over the first set. Complete this set of turns. Put the last set around the second and through the first as shown in view 3. Note that the first turn of the last set locks the first two sets in place.

Figure 12-22 Stage Hitch

Figure 12-23 Monkey Fist

After completing the third set of turns, insert a 5- to 10-ounce weight in the monkey fist. Tighten the turns by working the slack back towards the standing part. In a properly tied monkey fist, the ends come out at opposite corners as shown in view 4. To complete the monkey fist, put a half hitch on the standing part with the running end and seize it to the standing part.

SPLICING THREE-STRAND FIBER LINE

Splicing is a method of permanently joining the ends of two lines or of bending-a line back on itself to form a permanent loop or an eye. If two lines are going to be spliced, strands on an end of each line are unlaid, and the strands are interwoven with those of the standing part of the line. Small stuff can be spliced without need of a fid. A fid is a tapering length of hickory or some other hard wood used in splicing larger lines. A knife is needed to cut off the ends of the strands. This paragraph explains and shows the back, short, and eye splices.

BACK SPLICE WITH A CROWN KNOT

Where the end of a fiber line is to be spliced to prevent unlaying and a slight enlargement of the end is not objectionable, use a back splice. This splice is usually done on small stuff. To make this splice, do the following:

Step 1. Unlay six turns of the line (Figure 12-24). Step 2. To start the crown knot, form a bight with the left strand and lay the bitter end of the strand between the right and center strand. Then lay the center strand over the running end of the left strand. Take the right strand under the running end of the left strand, over the running end of the center strand, and back through the bight of the left strand. Then take all the slack out of the strands and gently pull the strands tight (Figure 12-25). Step 3. Start the left strand; go over one strand, tuck under the next one, and pull the strand tight (Figure 12-26). Step 4. Turn the line and tuck each strand. Three complete tucks are required for each strand (Figure 12-27). Step 5. Trim off the ends of the strands. Then lay the splice on the deck, put your foot on it, and roll it back and forth. This will tighten up and smooth out the splice.

Figure 12-24. Making a Back Splice,

Step 1

Figure 12-25. Making a Back Splice,
Step 2

Figure 12-26. Making a Back Splice,
Step 3

Figure 12-27. Making a Back Splice,
Step 4

SHORT SPLICE

The short splice (Figure 12-28) is as strong as the rope of which it is made. However, the short splice will increase the diameter of the line at the splice and can be used only where this increase in diameter will not affect the operation. Use the short splice to repair damaged lines. The damaged parts of the line are cut out and the short splice rejoins the line. Only lines of the same size can be joined together using the short splice.
Do the following to make a short splice (see also Figure 12-28): Step 1. Untwist one end of each line five complete turns. Whip or tape each strand. Bring these strands tightly together so that each strand of one line alternates with a strand of the other line. Put a temporary whipping on the lines where they join to keep them from suddenly coming apart. Do this with small lines until you are skilled enough to hold them together while you tuck. Step 2. Starting with either line, tuck a round of strands in the other line. Then, using the strands of the other line, tuck a round in the first line. These first two rounds of tucks are expressed: "Tuck in one direction. Reverse and tuck in the other direction." When making a round of tucks, regardless of the direction, face where the lines are butted so to always tuck from right to left. Pull each strand as required to tighten the center of the splice. Step 3. Tuck two more rounds in each direction. After tucking in one direction and reversing and tucking in the other direction, pull the strands as required to strengthen the center of the splice. When finished with three rounds of tucks in each direction, cut off any excess length on the strands. To have a smoother splice, you may cut off one-third of the circumference of each strand before making the second round of tucks and another one-third cut before the third round. Step 4. When the splice is completed, cut off the excess strands as before. Lay the splice on the deck and roll it with your foot to smooth out and tighten the splice.

Figure 12-28. Making a Short Splice

EYE SPLICE

When a loop is to be permanent, put in the line with an eye splice, which has a strength of 90 to 95 percent. Compare this with the strength of a bowline of 60 percent.
Unlay (untwist) the strands four to five turns and splice them into the standing part of the line by tucking the unlaid strands from the ends into the standing part. Whip or tape the ends of the strands. An original round of tucks with two more complete rounds is enough because, if the line parts, it will likely part in the eye rather than in the splice. For this reason, three rounds are as effective as a greater number. Do the following to make an eye splice:
Note: Always whip or tape the ends of the strands before starting; otherwise they will unlay. Seize large lines at the point where unlaying stops to avoid trouble working with them. With up to 21 threads, you can open the strands in the standing part with your fingers. Use the fid for larger lines. Step 1. Figure 12-29 shows how to make the first two tucks. Separate the strands in the end and hold them up as shown. Place the three unlaid strands against the standing part where they will be tucked, forming an eye the size you need. Always tuck the middle strand facing you first. Put a reverse twist on the standing part so that you can raise the strand under which you will make the first tuck. Pick up the strand that you will tuck, and tuck it under the strand raised. Always tuck from right to left or with the lay of the line. Step 2. Be sure to keep the next strand on the side of the line that is towards you. Tuck that one next. Put it over the strand under which the first one is tucked, and tuck it under the next one (Figure 12-30).

Step 3. Now turn the incomplete eye over as shown. Check the third strand to be sure that it has not unlaid more. If it has, twist it back to where it should be. Take the last strand and put it across the standing part, turn its end back toward you, put it under the strand over which the first tuck was made, and tuck it in a direction toward you. This results in the third tuck going to where the second came out and coming out where the first went in. After this round of tucks, there is a strand in each lay (Figure 12-31).

Figure 12-29. Selecting the Middle

Strand

Figure 12-30. First Two Tucks in an

Eye Splice

Figure 12-31. Last Tucks of an Eye Splice

Pull each of the three strands tucked backward at about a 45-degree angle to the eye to tighten the splice.
The first round of tucks is the key to making perfect eye splices. Starting with any strand, simply tuck each one over and under two more times. None of the last two rounds of tucks requires "over and back." However, always tuck from right to left. As required, pull the tucked strands away from the eye and twist the splice and line to tighten them. After finishing the splice, bend the end of each strand back toward the splice and, using a knife, cut it off, up, and away, leaving a one-fourth inch tip.

RAPPEL SEAT

The rappel seat is an improvised seat rappel harness made of rope (Figure 4-31). It usually requires a sling rope 14 feet or longer. STEP 1. Find the middle of the sling rope and make a bight. STEP 2. Decide which hand will be used as the brake hand and place the bight on the opposite hip. STEP 3. Reach around behind and grab a single strand of rope. Bring it around the waist to the front and tie two overhands on the other strand of rope, thus creating a loop around the waist. STEP 4. Pass the two ends between the legs, ensuring they do not cross. STEP 5. Pass the two ends up under the loop around the waist, bisecting the pocket flaps on the trousers. Pull up on the ropes, tightening the seat. STEP 6. From rear to front, pass the two ends through the leg loops creating a half hitch on both hips. STEP 7. Bring the longer of the two ends across the front to the nonbrake hand hip and secure the two ends with a square knot safetied with overhand knots. Tuck any excess rope in the pocket below the square knot.

Figure 4-31 Rappel seat

Check Points; (1) There are two overhand knots in the front. (2) The ropes are not crossed between the legs.

(3) A half hitch is formed on each hip. (4) Seat is secured with a square knot with overhand safeties on the non-brake hand side. (5) There is a minimum 4-inch pigtail after the overhand safeties are tied.

PRESEWN HARNESSES; Although improvised harnesses are made from readily available materials and take little space in the pack or pocket, presewn harnesses provide other aspects that should be considered. No assembly is required, which reduces preparation time for roped movement. All presewn harnesses provide a range of adjustability. These harnesses have a fixed buckle that, when used correctly, will not fail before the nylon materials connected to it. However, specialized equipment, such as a presewn harness, reduce the flexibility of gear. Presewn harness are bulky, also.

a. Seat Harness. Many presewn seat harnesses are available with many different qualities separating them, including cost.

(1) The most notable difference will be the amount and placement of padding. The more padding the higher the price and the more comfort. Gear loops sewn into the waist belt on the sides and in the back are a common feature and are usually strong enough to hold quite a few carabiners and or protection. The gear loops will vary in number from one model/manufacturer to another.

(2) Although most presewn seat harnesses have a permanently attached belay loop connecting the waist belt and the leg loops, the climbing rope should be run around the waist belt and leg loop connector. The presewn belay loop adds another link to the chain of possible failure points and only gives one point of security whereas running the rope through the waist belt and leg loop connector provides two points of contact.

(3) If more than two men will be on the rope, connect the middle position(s) to the rope with a carabiner routed the same as stated in the previous paragraph.

(4) Many manufactured seat harnesses will have a presewn loop of webbing on the rear. Although this loop is much stronger than the gear loops, it is not for a belay anchor. It is a quick attachment point to haul an additional rope.

b. Chest Harness. The chest harness will provide an additional connecting point for the rope, usually in the form of a carabiner loop to attach a carabiner and rope to. This type of additional connection will provide a comfortable hanging position on the rope, but otherwise provides no additional protection from injury during a fall (if the seat harness is fitted correctly).

(1) A chest harness will help the climber remain upright on the rope during rappelling or ascending a fixed rope, especially while wearing a heavy pack. (If rappelling or ascending long or multiple pitches, let the pack hang on a drop cord below the feet and attached to the harness tie-in point.)

(2) The presewn chest harnesses available commercially will invariably offer more comfort or performance features, such as padding, gear loops, or ease of adjustment, than an improvised chest harness.

c. Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one assembly. This is the safest harness to use as it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the chest, reducing the chance of an inverted position when hanging on the rope. This is especially helpful when moving on ropes with heavy packs. A full-body harness only affects the body position when hanging on the rope and will not prevent head injury in a fall.

CAUTION

This type of harness does not prevent the climber from falling head first. Body position during a fall is affected only by the forces that generated the fall, and this type of harness promotes an upright position only when hanging on the rope from the attachment point.

IMPROVISED HARNESSES

Without the use of a manufactured harness, many methods are still available for attaching oneself to a rope. Harnesses can be improvised using rope or webbing and knots.

a. Swami Belt. The swami belt is a simple, belt-only harness created by wrapping rope or webbing around the waistline and securing the ends. One-inch webbing will provide more comfort. Although an effective swami belt can be assembled with a minimum of one wrap, at least two wraps are recommended for comfort, usually with approximately ten feet of material. The ends are secured with an appropriate knot.

b. Bowline-on-a-Coil. Traditionally, the standard method for attaching oneself to the climbing rope was with a bowline-on-a-coil around the waist. The extra wraps distribute the force of a fall over a larger area of the torso than a single bowline would, and help prevent the rope from riding up over the rib cage and under the armpits. The knot must be tied snugly around the narrow part of the waist, just above the bony portions of the hips (pelvis). Avoid crossing the wraps by keeping them spread over the waist area. "Sucking in the gut" a bit when making the wraps will ensure a snug fit.

(1) The bowline-on-a-coil can be used to tie-in to the end of the rope (Figure 6-19). The end man should have a minimum of four wraps around the waist before completing the knot.

Figure 6-19 Tying-in with a bowline-on-a-coil

(2) The bowline-on-a-coil is a safe and effective method for attaching to the rope when the terrain is low-angled, WITHOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF A SEVERE FALL. When the terrain becomes steeper, a fall will generate more force on the climber and this will be felt through the coils of this type of attachment. A hard fall will cause the coils to ride up against the ribs. In a severe fall, any tie-in around the waist only could place a "shock load" on the climber's lower back. Even in a relatively short fall, if the climber ends up suspended in mid-air and unable to regain footing on the rock, the rope around the waist can easily cut off circulation and breathing in a relatively short time.

(3) The climbing harness distributes the force of a fall over the entire pelvic region, like a parachute harness. Every climber should know how to tie some sort of improvised climbing harness from sling material. A safe, and comfortable, seat/chest combination harness can be tied from one-inch tubular nylon.

c. Improvised Seat Harness. A seat harness can be tied from a length of webbing approximately 25 feet long (Figure 6-20).

(1) Locate the center of the rope. Off to one side, tie two fixed loops approximately 6 inches apart (overhand loops). Adjust the size of the loops so they fit snugly around the thigh. The loops are tied into the sling "off center" so the remaining ends are different lengths. The short end should be approximately 4 feet long (4 to 5 feet for larger individuals).

(2) Slip the leg loops over the feet and up to the crotch, with the knots to the front. Make one complete wrap around the waist with the short end, wrapping to the outside, and hold it in place on the hip. Keep the webbing flat and free of twists when wrapping.

(3) Make two to three wraps around the waist with the long end in the opposite direction (wrapping to the outside), binding down on the short end to hold it in place. Grasping both ends, adjust the waist wraps to a snug fit. Connect the ends with the appropriate knot between the front and one side so you will be able to see what you are doing.

Figure 6-20 Improvised seat and chest harness

d. Improvised Chest Harness. The chest harness can be tied from rope or webbing, but remember that with webbing, wider is better and will be more comfortable when you load this harness. Remember as you tie this harness that the remaining ends will need to be secured so choose the best length. Approximately 6 to 10 feet usually works.

(1) Tie the ends of the webbing together with the appropriate knot, making a sling 3 to 4 feet long. (2) Put a single twist into the sling, forming two loops. (3) Place an arm through each loop formed by the twist, just as you would put on a jacket, and drape the sling over the shoulders. The twist, or cross, in the sling should be in the middle of the back. (4) Join the two loops at the chest with a carabiner. The water knot should be set off to either side for easy inspection (if a pack is to be worn, the knot will be uncomfortable if it gets between the body and the pack). The chest harness should fit just loose enough to allow necessary clothing and not to restrict breathing or circulation. Adjust the size of the sling if necessary.

e. Improvised Full-Body Harness. Full-body harnesses incorporate a chest and seat harness into one assembly.

(1) The full-body harness is the safest harness because it relocates the tie-in point higher, at the chest, reducing the chance of an inverted hanging position on the rope. This is especially helpful when moving on ropes with heavy packs. A full-body harness affects the body position only when hanging on the rope.

CAUTION

A full-body harness does not prevent falling head first; body position in a fall is caused by the forces that caused the fall.

(2) Although running the rope through the carabiner of the chest harness does, in effect, create a type of full-body harness, it is not a true full-body harness until the chest harness and the seat harness are connected as one piece. A true full-body harness can be improvised by connecting the chest harness to the seat harness, but not by just tying the rope into both—the two harnesses must be "fixed" as one harness. Fix them together with a short loop of webbing or rope so that the climbing rope can be connected directly to the chest harness and your weight is supported by the seat harness through the connecting material.

f. Attaching the Rope to the Improvised Harness. The attachment of the climbing rope to the harness is a CRITICAL LINK. The strength of the rope means nothing if it is attached poorly, or incorrectly, and comes off the harness in a fall. The climber ties the end of the climbing rope to the seat harness with an appropriate knot. If using a chest harness, the standing part of the rope is then clipped into the chest harness carabiner. The seat harness absorbs the main force of the fall, and the chest harness helps keep the body upright.

CAUTION

The knot must be tied around all the waist wraps and the 6-inch length of webbing between the leg loops.

(1) A middleman must create a fixed loop to tie in to. A rethreaded figure-eight loop tied on a doubled rope or the three loop bowline can be used. If using the three loop bowline, ensure the end, or third loop formed in the knot, is secured around the tie-in loops with an overhand knot. The standing part of the rope going to the lead climber is clipped into the chest harness carabiner.

Note:

The climbing rope is not clipped into the chest harness when belaying.

(2) The choice of whether to tie-in with a bowline-on-a-coil or into a climbing harness depends entirely on the climber's judgment, and possibly the equipment available. A good rule of thumb is: "Wear a climbing harness when the potential for severe falls exists and for all travel over snow-covered glaciers because of the crevasse fall hazard."

(3) Under certain conditions many climbers prefer to attach the rope to the seat harness with a locking carabiner, rather than tying the rope to it. This is a common practice for moderate snow and ice climbing, and especially for glacier travel where wet and frozen knots become difficult to untie.

CAUTION

Because the carabiner gate may be broken or opened by protruding rocks during a fall, tie the rope directly to the harness for maximum safety.

Harnesses; Years ago climbers secured themselves to the rope by wrapping the rope around their bodies and tying a bowline-on-a-coil. While this technique is still viable the practice is no longer encouraged because of the increased possibility of injury from a fall. The bowline-on-a-coil is best left for low-angle climbing or an emergency situation where harness material is unavailable. Fitted properly, the harness should ride high on the hips and have snug leg loops to better distribute the force of a fall to the entire pelvis. This type of harness aka a seat harness provides a comfortable seat for rappelling (Figure 3-10). Any harness should have one very important feature a double-passed buckle. A safety standard that requires the waist belt to be passed over and back through the main buckle a second time. At least 2 inches of the strap should remain after double-passing the buckle. Another desirable feature is adjustable leg loops, which allows a snug fit regardless of the number of layers of clothing worn. Allowing the Marine to make a latrine call without removing the harness or untying the rope. Equipment loops are desirable for carrying pieces of equipment. A field-expedient version of the seat harness can be constructed by using 22 ft of either 1-inch or 2-inch (preferred) tubular webbing (Figure 3-10). Two double-overhand knots form the leg loops, leaving 4 to 5 ft of webbing coming from one of the leg loops. The leg loops should just fit over the clothing. Wrap the remaining webbing around the waist ensuring the first wrap is routed through the 6- to 10-in long strap between the double-overhand knots. Finish the waist wrap with a water knot tied as tightly as possible. With the remaining webbing, tie a square knot without safeties over the water knot ensuring a minimum of 4 in remains from each strand of webbing. The full body harness incorporates a chest harness with a seat harness (Figure 3-10). This type of harness has a higher tie-in point and greatly reduces the chance of flipping backward during a fall. While these harnesses are safer, they do present several disadvantages they are more restrictive, and increase the difficulty of adding or removing clothing. Most mountaineers prefer to incorporate a separate chest harness with their seat harness when warranted. A field-expedient version chest harness can be made from either two runners or a long piece of webbing. It is then attached to the seat harness with a carabiner and a length of webbing or cord.

ANCHORS

This chapter discusses different types of anchors and their application in rope systems and climbing. Proper selection and placement of anchors is a critical skill that requires a great deal of practice. Failure of any system is most likely to occur at the anchor point. If the anchor is not strong enough to support the intended load, it will fail. Failure is usually the result of poor terrain features selected for the anchor point, or the equipment used in rigging the anchor was placed improperly or in insufficient amounts.

When selecting or constructing anchors, always try to make sure the anchor is "bombproof." A bombproof anchor is stronger than any possible load that could be placed on it. An anchor that has more strength than the climbing rope is considered bombproof.

NATURAL ANCHORS

Natural anchors should be considered for use first. They are usually strong and often simple to construct with minimal use of equipment. Trees, boulders, and other terrain irregularities are already in place and simply require a method of attaching the rope. However, natural anchors should be carefully studied and evaluated for stability and strength before use. Sometimes the climbing rope is tied directly to the anchor, but under most circumstances a sling is attached to the anchor and then the climbing rope is attached to the sling with a carabiner(s). (See paragraph for slinging techniques.)

TREES

Trees are probably the most widely used of all natural anchors depending on the terrain and geographical region (Figure 5-1). However, trees must be carefully checked for suitability.

Figure 5-1 Trees used as anchors

a. In rocky terrain, treesusually have a shallow root system. This can be checked by pushing or tugging on the tree to see how well it i rooted. Anchoring as low as possible to prevent excess leverage on the tree may be necessary.

b. Use padding on soft, sap producing trees to keep sap off ropes and slings.

BOULDERS

Boulders and rock nubbins make ideal anchors (Figure 5-2). The rock can be firmly tapped with a piton hammer to ensure it is solid. Sedimentary and other loose rock formations are not stable. Talus and scree fields are an indicator that the rock in the area is not solid. All areas around the rock formation that could cut the rope or sling should be padded.

Figure 5-2 Boulders used as anchors

CHOCKSTONES

A chockstone is a rock that is wedged in a crack because the crack narrows downward (Figure 5-3). Chockstones should be checked for strength, security, and crumbling and should always be tested before use. All chockstones must be solid and strong enough to support the load. They must have maximum surface contact and be well tapered with the surrounding rock to remain in position.

Figure 5-3 Chockstones

Chockstones are often directional—they are secure when pulled in one direction but may pop out if pulled in another direction.

A creative climber can often make his own chockstone by wedging a rock into position, tying a rope to it, and clipping on a carabiner.

Slings should not be wedged between the chockstone and the rock wall since a fall could cut the webbing runner.

ROCK PROJECTIONS

Rock projections (sometimes called nubbins) often provide suitable protection (Figure 5-4). These include blocks, flakes, horns, and spikes. If rock projections are used, their firmness is important. They should be checked for cracks or weathering that may impair their firmness. If any of these signs exist, the projection should be avoided.

Figure 5-4 Rock projections

TUNNELS AND ARCHES

Tunnels and arches are holes formed in solid rock and provide one of the more secure anchor points because they can be pulled in any direction. A sling is threaded through the opening hole and secured with a joining knot or girth hitch. The load-bearing hole must be strong and free of sharp edges (pad if necessary).

BUSHES AND SHRUBS

If no other suitable anchor is available, the roots of bushes can be used by routing a rope around the bases of several bushes (Figure 5-5). As with trees, the anchoring rope is placed as low as possible to reduce leverage on the anchor. All vegetation should be healthy and well rooted to the ground.

Figure 5-5 Bushes and shrubs

SLINGING TECHNIQUES

Three methods are used to attach a sling to a natural anchor—drape, wrap, and girth. Whichever method is used, the knot is set off to the side where it will not interfere with normal carabiner movement. The carabiner gate should face away from the ground and open away from the anchor for easy insertion of the rope. When a locking carabiner cannot be used, two carabiners are used with gates opposed. Correctly opposed gates should open on opposite sides and form an "X" when opened (Figure 5-6).

Figure 5-6 Correctly opposed carabiners

Drape; drape the sling over the anchor (Figure 5-7). Untying the sling and routing it around the anchor and then retying is still considered a drape.

Figure 5-7 Drape

Wrap; wrap the sling around the anchor and connect the two ends together with a carabiner(s) or knot (Figure 5-8).

Figure 5-8 Wrap

Girth. Tie the sling around the anchor with a girth hitch (Figure 5-9). Although a girth hitch reduces the strength of the sling, it allows the sling to remain in position and not slide on the anchor.

Figure 5-9 Girth

ANCHORING WITH THE ROPE

The climbing or installation rope can be tied directly to the anchor using several different techniques. This requires less equipment, but also sacrifices some rope length to tie the anchor. The rope can be tied to the anchor using an appropriate anchor knot such as a bowline or a rerouted figure eight. Round turns can be used to help keep the rope in position on the anchor. A tensionless anchor can be used in high-load installations where tension on the attachment point and knot is undesirable.

ROPE ANCHOR

When tying the climbing or installation rope around an anchor, the knot should be placed approximately the same distance away from the anchor as the diameter of the anchor (Figure 5-10). The knot shouldn't be placed up against the anchor because this can stress and distort the knot under tension.

Figure 5-10 Rope tied to anchor with anchor knot

TENSIONLESS ANCHOR

The tensionless anchor is used to anchor the rope on high-load installations such as bridging and traversing (Figure 5-11). The wraps of the rope around the anchor absorb the tension of the installation and keep the tension off the knot and carabiner. The anchor is usually tied with a minimum of four wraps, more if necessary, to absorb the tension. A smooth anchor may require several wraps, whereas a rough barked tree might only require a few. The rope is wrapped from top to bottom. A fixed loop is placed into the end of the rope and attached loosely back onto the rope with a carabiner.

Figure 5-11 Tensionless anchor

ARTIFICIAL ANCHORS

Using artificial anchors becomes necessary when natural anchors are unavailable. The art of choosing and placing good anchors requires a great deal of practice and experience. Artificial anchors are available in many different types such as pitons, chocks, hexcentrics, and SLCDs. Anchor strength varies greatly; the type used depends on the terrain, equipment, and the load to be placed on it.

DEADMAN is any solid object buried in the ground and used as an anchor. An object that has a large surface area and some length to it works best. (A hefty timber, such as a railroad tie, would be ideal.) Large boulders can be used, as well as a bundle of smaller tree limbs or poles. As with natural anchors, ensure timbers and tree limbs are not dead or rotting and that boulders are solid. Equipment, such as skis, ice axes, snowshoes, and ruck sacks, can also be used if necessary. In extremely hard, rocky terrain (where digging a trench would be impractical, if not impossible) a variation of the deadman anchor can be constructed by building above the ground. The sling is attached to the anchor, which is set into the ground as deeply as possible. Boulders are then stacked on top of it until the anchor is strong enough for the load. Though normally not as strong as when buried, this method can work well for light-load installations as in anchoring a hand line for a stream crossing. Note: Artificial anchors, such as pitons and bolts, are not widely accepted for use in all areas because of the scars they leave on the rock and the environment. Often they are left in place and become unnatural, unsightly fixtures in the natural environment. For training planning, local laws and courtesies should be taken into consideration for each area of operation.

Equalized Anchors Snow and ice anchors must be constantly checked due to melting and changing snow or ice conditions.

(1) Whenever possible, two or more anchors should be used. While this is not always practical for intermediate anchor points on lead climbs or fixed ropes, it should be mandatory for main anchors at all belay positions, rappel points, or other fixed rope installations. (Figure 10-19 shows an example of three snow pickets configured to an equalized anchor.) (2) As with multipoint anchors on rock, two or more snow or ice anchors can be joined together with a sling rope or webbing to construct one solid, equalized anchor. A bowline on a bight tied into the climbing rope can also be used instead of sling ropes or webbing.

Figure 10-19 Equalized anchor using pickets

EQUALIZING ANCHORS are made up of more than one anchor point joined together so that the intended load is shared equally. This not only provides greater anchor strength, but also adds redundancy or backup because of the multiple points.

a. Self-equalizing Anchor. A self-equalizing anchor will maintain an equal load on each individual point as the direction of pull changes (Figure 5-18). This is sometimes used in rappelling when the route must change left or right in the middle of the rappel. A self-equalizing anchor should only be used when necessary because if any one of the individual points fail, the anchor will extend and shock-load the remaining points or even cause complete anchor failure.

Figure 5-18 Self-equalizing anchors

Pre-equalized Anchor distributes the load equally to each individual point (Figure 5-19). It is aimed in the direction of the load. A pre-equalized anchor prevents extension and shock-loading of the anchor if an individual point fails. An anchor is pre-equalized by tying an overhand or figure-eight knot in the webbing or sling.

Figure 5-19 Pre-equalized anchor

Note: When using webbing or slings, the angles of the webbing or slings directly affect the load placed on an anchor. An angle greater than 90 degrees can result in anchor failure (Figure 5-20).

Figure 5-20 Effects of angles on an anchor

SNOW AND ICE ANCHORS consist of snow pickets, flukes, deadman-type anchors, ice screws, and ice pitons. Deadman anchors can be constructed from snowshoes, skis, backpacks, sleds, or any large items.

Horseshoe or Bollard Anchor is an artificial anchor shaped generally like a horseshoe (Figure 10-18). It is formed from either ice or snow and constructed by either cutting with the ice ax or stamping with the boots. When constructed of snow, the width should not be less than 10 feet. In ice, this width may be narrowed to 2 feet, depending on the strength of the ice. The length of the bollard should be at least twice the width. The trench around the horseshoe should be stamped as deeply as possible in the snow and should be cut not less than 6 inches into the ice after all rotten ice is removed. The backside of the anchor must always be undercut to prevent the rope from sliding off and over the anchor. (1) This type of anchor is usually available and may be used for fixed ropes or rappels. It must be inspected frequently to ensure that the rope is not cutting through the snow or ice more than one-third the length of the anchor; if it is, a new anchor must be constructed in a different location. (2) A horseshoe anchor constructed in snow is always precarious, its strength depending upon the prevailing texture of the snow. For dry or wind-packed snow, the reliability of the anchor should always be suspect. The backside of the bollard can be reinforced with ice axes, pickets, or other equipment for added strength.

Figure 10-18 Horseshoe or bollard anchor

Mix gas closed circuit oxygen UBA (MK-15) LAR V Draeger/Dredger

To understand what a rebreather is and how it works, it is useful to understand how conventional scuba gear works SCUBA i.e. (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) usually heavy metal cylinders designed to withstand high pressures underwater and contain "breathing air", aka nitrox (an air-like mixture of nitrogen and oxygen). Nearly all scuba divers use a basic apparatus called open-circuit scuba. This type of system was first introduced to recreational divers by Cousteau and employs a compressed gas supply and a demand regulator from which the diver breathes. The exhaust gas is discarded in the form of bubbles with each breath, hence the term "open-circuit". Open-circuit scuba is inherently inefficient: The air around us is about 79 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen (with tiny amounts of a few other gases thrown in for good measure). The oxygen is used for metabolism (i.e. during respiration our bodies use the oxygen to turn the food we've eaten into useful energy to power our muscles). Or lungs evolved from fish gills. A fish gulps in water through its mouth and lets it trickle past its gills. These sensitive gas gatherers extract up to 80% of the oxygen in the water, and then the water drains back into the sea. Our lungs grab only 25 % of the oxygen from the air we inhale from nature or a tank and exhale the other 75 % with the waste carbon dioxide thus much useable oxygen (O2) is wasted with each breath. Furthermore, the quantity of O2 lost in this manner increases with increasing depth. However the nitrogen breathed in can also cause problems. It's all to do with pressure. The deeper you dive, the more the water pressure increases and the harder it is to breathe. Every extra 10 m (33 ft) of depth the pressure increases by another atmosphere (an "atmosphere" is the normal air pressure around us on land). In other words, 10 m (33 ft) below the surface the pressure is twice as great as it is at the surface and 20 m (66 ft) below, it's three times as great. No-one can dive deeper than about 120 m (400 ft) without a special deep-sea diving suit. That's not the only reason pressure is a problem. Pressure also changes the way the body responds to the different gases breathed. If they dive deeper than about 30 m (100 ft), they can suffer from a problem called nitrogen narcosis (also called the "Martini effect" and "rapture of the deep"), which is a bit like being drunk underwater: it can dangerously impair judgment. To avoid this, divers who want to go deeper tend to breathe a gas mixture containing less nitrogen, such as heliox (a mixture of mostly helium and oxygen).

Coming back to the surface presents problems too. Too quickly, causes "the bends" (also known as decompression sickness or caisson disease). As they rise up and the pressure falls, bubbles of nitrogen start to appear in the blood. It's exactly the same as unscrewing a fizzy drink bottle. Removing the top reduces the pressure and the gas forced inside the liquid suddenly reappears in the form of bubbles. Depending on where in the blood the bubbles form, the bends can cause anything from a mild pain in the joints to complete paralysis or even death. Divers avoid it by surfacing very slowly. If they must surface quickly, in an emergency, they are usually put in a high-pressure decompression chamber straight afterwards to "decompress" (with the pressure gradually reduced to normal).

Aqualung ?

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A rebreather

MK-16 scuba rebreather; aka closed-circuit scuba, has the diver breathing in and out of a closed-loop of tubes and tanks around which gas is constantly circulating. As with ordinary scuba, the diver breathes in a mixture of oxygen and other gases. Their lungs remove some of the oxygen, and breathe out the rest with carbon dioxide. But instead of the oxygen and carbon dioxide being exhaled, they flow back around the diver's breathing system for recycling, in a completely closed-loop. The carbon dioxide is removed by a chemical scrubber and more oxygen is added from tanks on the diver's back to replace what the diver's lungs removed. Rebreather diving is a unique experience. The onboard counter lungs offset annoying buoyancy changes. Warm moist gas is breathed by the diver, so 'cotton mouth' is a thing of the past. Thermal balance is maintained longer too. The most noticeable feature is the absence of noisy exhaust bubbles.

Its design start with a breathing loop equipped with a mouthpiece, through which a diver breathes. If the entire breathing loop is of rigid construction, the diver would be unable to breathe because there would be nowhere for the exhaled gas to go into, nor the inhaled gas to come from (analogous to trying to breathe in and out of a soda bottle). Thus, there must be some sort of collapsible bag attached to the breathing loop that inflates when a diver exhales, and deflates when a diver inhales. This bag is referred to as, appropriately enough as a counterlung.

If a diver was to continue breathing in and out from this breathing loop, the carbon dioxide (CO2) exhaled by the diver would soon build up to dangerous levels. Therefore, the breathing loop must also include a CO2 absorbent canister containing some sort of chemical (e.g., HP Sodasorb, Sofnolime, or lithium hydroxide) that absorbs CO2, removing it from the breathing gas.
Of course, the CO2 absorbent canister alone will not permit the diver to continue breathing from the rebreather indefinitely; the oxygen in the breathing loop will eventually be consumed by diver via metabolism. Therefore, the rebreather must have some means to allow oxygen to be injected into the breathing loop in order to continue sustaining the diver. Furthermore, to prevent the diver from simply inhaling the same gas that was just exhaled, the rebreather must be designed to ensure that gas continues to circulate in one direction around the breathing loop. This is usually accomplished with an upstream check-valve, and a downstream check-valve, located on either side of the mouthpiece; these allow inhaled gas to come from only one direction in the breathing loop, and allow exhaled gas to go only in the opposite direction. Another feature common to most rebreather designs is some sort of shut-off valve in the mouthpiece which can be shut if the mouthpiece is removed underwater, to prevent water from flooding the breathing loop

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Semi-closed rebreathers

Is a form of mixed-gas rebreather, in that it incorporates gas mixtures other than pure oxygen. There are two fundamentally different categories of semi-closed rebreathers: active-addition, and passive-addition. By far, the most common are the active-addition systems. The supply gas is usually injected into the breathing loop at a constant-mass rate. In other words, regardless of the depth, a constant number of molecules of gas are injected into the loop in a given period of time. The rate of injection in such systems must be adjusted according to the fraction of oxygen in the supply gas, such that the rate of oxygen addition to the breathing loop meets or exceeds the rate at which the diver consumes oxygen in the breathing loop.

What are the advantages of rebreathers?
Rebreathers provide two fundamental advantages over open-circuit systems: More efficient use of gas and near-silent operation. Gas Efficiency: as the depth of the dive increases, this inefficiency of open-circuit systems is compounded: because of the increased pressure at greater depths, more gas molecules are lost with each exhaled breath. A rebreather, on the other hand, retains most or all of the exhaled breath, processes it, and returns it to the diver. The deeper the dive, the more advantageous (from a gas efficiency perspective) rebreathers become. For example, a standard scuba cylinder contains enough gas to sustain an average resting person for about an hour and a half at the surface. The same cylinder will last only 45 minutes 10 meters (33 feet) underwater, and less than 10 minutes at a depth of 90 meters (297 feet). But if that same cylinder were filled with oxygen and used to supply a rebreather, the diver could theoretically stay underwater for two days -- regardless of the depth!

Since your exhaled breath is not lost to the great blue depths, your gas consumption drops by up to 90%, allowing you to dive all weekend on just one 4 or 5 liter cylinder!
Not only is the Drager Dolphin quieter, but through the use of Nitrox, it will allow you to stay down longer. An average diver usually consumes the contents of an 12 l. tank in a 20 m. dive for 55 minutes. Advanced divers who have training in Nitrox gasses can expand that 55 minute limit through the use of Nitrox, but they are still limited by the 12 l. tank unless they use a very heavy pair of tanks.

The Dolphin Rebreathers use Nitrox, a nitrogen-oxygen mixture. With Nitrox, your breathing air contains less nitrogen. You can stay down longer because the non-decompression times have increased. How long you can dive, how often and how deep is all a question of mixture with Dolphin Rebreathers. The variable oxygen-nitrogen mix ratio offers you enhanced capabilities.

Silence: with each exhaled breath, a diver using conventional scuba gear releases a large burst of noisy bubbles. The effect of this on the behavior of marine-life varies, but in most cases, fishes behave warily and are reluctant to allow a diver to approach closely.

What are the disadvantages of rebreathers?

All kinds of rebreathers have certain specific complexities which introduce forms of risk not experienced by scuba divers. The fundamental difference between open-circuit scuba and rebreather systems is that on scuba, if a diver can breathe and is not outside well-established depth limits, the breathing gas is going to be life-sustaining (assuming the cylinder was filled properly). If there is a problem with an open-circuit system, the problem is usually very self-evident to the diver, so the diver at least is aware of the problem and can takes steps toward a solution.
With rebreathers, however, the breathing gas may be dynamic, and thus the oxygen concentration may drift out of life-sustaining range within the course of a single dive. The oxygen concentration in the breathing loop depends on diver workload. Under certain circumstances, especially during high exertion and/or during an ascent, the oxygen concentration in a semi-closed rebreather could drop to dangerously low levels.
These problems can be largely avoided if the gas supply rate of rebreathers is adjusted carefully and the breathing loop is flushed with fresh gas prior to an ascent. Unfortunately, symptoms associated with hypoxia and oxygen toxicity cannot be regarded as reliable precursors to black-out. Therefore, it is ultimately up to the diver to take steps to ensure a continuous life-sustaining gas mixture i.e. a higher dedication to equipment maintenance. Furthermore, rebreathers are generally more complex devices than open-circuit scuba gear, which also accounts for why they require more training time.

The Dolphin

Dräger Dolphin Semi-closed Rebreathers

With the Dolphin Rebreather, you get the benefits of Nitrox - extended bottom times with the time to use it and a quiet, peaceful dive (without a hundred lbs of tanks strapped to your back)
The Dolphin is a semiclosed rebreather for use with nitrox. It uses a constant mass flow dosing system which includes an additional demand bypass. Depending on which nitrox mixture you are using there are different orifices to set the rate of flow. The loop has a total volume of approximately 10.5 liters and depending on your individual lung volume and the adjustment of the pressure relief/dump valve the volume can be varied by 4.5 to 7.1 liters. The scrubber holds approx. 2.25 kg of absorbent. It comes with either a 4 or 5 liter 200 bar steel cylinder and a separate 2 liters, 200 bar open circuit bailout cylinder. It is 520 mm long, 370 mm wide and 2 5m m (205mm?) deep. On land it weighs approximately 17 kg and in water the weight is about 1 kg negative.

This constant supply of fresh gas ensures that you will always be provided with enough oxygen. Should you need more oxygen, due to great physical exertion, or if you need to clear your mask, a bypass valve opens automatically to supply additional fresh gas.

Another aspect of rebreather Scuba that you will enjoy is that the inhaled air is pleasantly warm and moist. This is because the chemical reaction involved in the absorption of carbon dioxide generates warmth and moisture, eliminating "dry mouth".

SELF-GENERATING (CANISTER) TYPE OBA

The self-generating, or canister, type OBA (Figure 11-37) is also a self-contained breathing apparatus.

Figure 11-37. Canister Type OBA

Construction

The canister contains chemicals that react with moisture in the wearer's exhaled breath to produce oxygen. These chemicals also absorb carbon dioxide from the exhaled breath. If the unit is used for a short time and then removed, a new canister must be inserted before the next use. The chemicals in the canister continue to react even after the face piece is removed and there is no accurate way of measuring the time left before the chemicals are used up. The breathing bag holds and cools the oxygen supplied by the canister and is made of reinforced neoprene.
The manual timer is set when the equipment is put into operation. It gives an audible alarm to warn the operator when the canister is nearly expended. The timer is no more than a clock; it does not indicate the condition of the canister. It should always be set to allow the wearer enough time to leave the contaminated area after the alarm sounds.

Operating Cycle

Figure 11-38 shows the operating cycle of the canister-type unit. The wearer's exhaled breath [1] passes from the face piece into the exhalation tube and then into the canister. The chemicals in the canister absorb moisture and carbon dioxide [2]. They produce oxygen, which passes from the canister to the breathing bag [3]. When the wearer inhales [4], the oxygen moves from the breathing bag to the face piece [5] via the inhalation tube.

Figure 11-38. Sequence of Operating Cycle for OBA

Putting on the OBA

Step 5; Remove the protective cap from the top to expose a thin copper seal (Figure 11-43).

Step 6; Swing the canister retaining bail forward and hold it with one hand. Now insert the canister in the holder, with the label facing outward, away from your body (Figure 11-44).

Step 7; Swing the retaining bail down under the canister and tighten the retainer (a heavy screw with a pad and hand-wheel) by turning it clockwise. This secures the canister in the holder and forms a seal between the canister and the central casting. The point of the central casting punctures the copper seal (Figure 11-45).

Step 8; Check the canister type to determine the correct starting action. Then don the facepiece as described in paragraph 11-158.

Step 9; Start a self-start canister as follows. Locate the small triangular metal tab on the metal box at the bottom of the canister. Grasp the tab with the thumb and index finger of your right hand and pull it downward (Figure 11-46). The small metal box will come away from the canister, exposing a lanyard. Grasp the lanyard with your index finger and thumb and pull it straight out away from your body. Do not pull down on the lanyard. The correct action will activate the chemicals in the canister, filling the breathing bag with oxygen. If the lanyard breaks and does not activate the self-starter, use the manual-start procedure in step 10.

Step 10; Start a manual-start canister in a safe, uncontaminated area by inserting one or two fingers under the facepiece and stretching it away from your face (Figure 11-47). With the other hand, grasp the inhalation and exhalation tubes and squeeze them tightly; then inhale. Now release the tubes, remove your fingers from under the mask, and exhale. Repeat this procedure several times to inflate the breathing bag. This will start the chemical action in the canister. Do not over inflate the breathing bag! It should be firm, but not rock hard.

Step 11; Test the facepiece for leakage by squeezing the inhalation and exhalation tubes while inhaling (Figure 11-47).

Step 12; Set the timer (Figure 11-48) by turning the knob clockwise. On older units, the timer is set for 30 minutes. This allows the wearer 15 minutes to leave the contaminated area after the alarm sounds. The control should be turned to the extreme clockwise position and then reset to the desired time interval. This ensures that the alarm will sound for a full 8 to 10 seconds.

CAUTION: One cause of difficulty in breathing is an over inflated breathing bag. If the bag is over inflated, it will seem very hard. This problem can be corrected, by briefly depressing the button in the center of the relief valve. The bag should not be allowed to deflate completely during this process. If the bag becomes under inflated, the user must repeat step 10.

Removing the Canister

The removal and disposal of an expended canister are very hazardous operations that must be performed to avoid injury. The procedure (see also Figure 11-49) is as follows:

Step 1; Spread your feet wide apart, and lean forward from the waist. (The chemical action that takes place in the canister generates sufficient heat to burn bare skin).

Step 2; Loosen the retaining screw by turning the hand wheel counterclockwise.

Step 3; Swing the retaining bail forward, and let the canister drop to the deck. It must not be tossed (or allowed to fall) into the bilge, or any place where oil, water, snow, ice, grease, or other contaminants can enter the hole in the copper seal. Organic material may cause a violent reaction. Water and substances containing water will cause a rapid chemical action in the canister, creating more pressure than can be released through the small neck opening.

Step 4; Puncture the expended canister several times, front and back.

Step 5; Fill a pail with clean water, deep enough to completely submerge the canister. Gently drop the canister into the water. A violent chemical reaction will take place. After the boiling has stopped, the water (which is now caustic) and the canister must be discarded as a hazardous waste.

Maintenance of Oxygen-Generating Apparatus

After-use maintenance by using the following procedures:

Clean the facepiece. Be especially careful to dry all the equipment thoroughly. Check the inhalation and exhalation valves for corrosion and replace if necessary. Test the alarm bell. Inspect the breathing bag. Inspect the canister holder and retaining bail and screw. Check the central casting plunger that breaks the seal and seals the canister into the system. This plunger operates by moving in and out about one fourth of an inch. A spring holds the plunger out. When the canister is inserted and tightened down by the bail screw, the plunger is depressed against the spring. This action ensures a tight seal. If the plunger does not work properly, it must be repaired or replaced; it should never be lubricated.

Safety Precautions

The user must be careful not to damage the breathing bag on nails, broken glass, or other sharp objects. Foreign material, especially petroleum products, must be kept from entering an opened canister. The chemical in the canister must not come in contact with the skin.
For older units without the self-start action, three fresh canisters should always be kept in readiness, with their caps intact, in the storage case. For newer units with the self-start action, two fresh canisters may be kept in the case.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the OBA

The following are some disadvantages of the canister-type apparatus:

About 2 minutes is required to start a manual-start canister and get the equipment into operation.

If the relief valve is not operated properly, the breathing bag may lose its oxygen. The wearer must then return to an uncontaminated area to restart the unit.

The bulkiness of the unit and its location on the wearer's chest may reduce maneuverability and the ability to work freely.

The unit is not easily used for buddy breathing in rescue work.

The apparatus cannot be used in an atmosphere that has contained or is suspected of containing flammable or combustible liquids or gases.

When the alarm bell sounds, it rings once and stops. Due to noise or some other distraction, the wearer may not hear the alarm.

SELF-CONTAINED, DEMAND-TYPE BREATHING APPARATUS

The demand-type breathing apparatus is being used increasingly aboard ships. Its popularity stems from its convenience, the cool fresh air it supplies the user, the speed with which it can be put into service, and its versatility. The demand-type apparatus gets its name from the functioning of the regulator, which controls the flow of air to the facepiece. The regulator supplies air "on demand;" that is, it supplies the user with air when he needs it and in the amount his respiratory system requires. It therefore supplies different users with air at different rates, depending on their "demand."
Note: The newer model of the demand-type breathing apparatus is being supplied with a positive flow to the facepiece. The slight pressure in the facepiece prevents contaminated air from entering the facepiece and getting into the respiratory tract. This positive air pressure lessens the critical nature of the facepiece fit against the user's face.
The self contained, demand-type apparatus consists of four assemblies:

Face piece; is the standard full-face type discussed earlier in this chapter.

Regulator; Air from the supply cylinder passes through the high-pressure hose and a preset pressure-reducing valve in the regulator. The admission valve is normally closed. However, when the user inhales, he produces a partial vacuum on one side of the admission valve. This opens the valve, allowing air to pass into the facepiece. The amount of air supplied depends on the amount of vacuum produced, which in turn depends on the user's air requirements. The regulator has a low-pressure alarm bell attached to the high-pressure hose. Older models of this regulator were equipped with a reserve valve. The reserve-valve lever is placed in the "start" position when the equipment is donned. When the cylinder pressure falls to about 500 psi, breathing becomes difficult, and the wearer must move the reserve lever to the "Reserve" position. This allows the wearer 4 to 5 minutes of reserve air with which to leave the contaminated area. An alarm bell kit can be installed on this older regulator model.

Air cylinder; includes a pressure gauge and a control valve. On most cylinders, the threaded hose connection is a standard size. Cylinders are rated according to breathing duration, which depends on the size and pressure of the cylinder. There are four standard sizes. A cylinder capacity of 1,200 psi (42 feet) of air should be enough to provide about 30 minutes of breathing.

Backpack or sling pack and the harness; They differ slightly according to the manufacturer, but all makes are donned in about the same way. However, backpack units are donned and stowed differently from sling-pack units.

Cavern Diving

Many cavern divers prefer low-volume masks less likely to get dislodged by the current found in some high-outflow springs. Most cavern divers prefer the open-heel, adjustable type fin. Allows you to wear wetsuit booties. They can be worn if you get out of water during dive. Snorkel, few if any caverns contain natural air pockets where you might use a snorkel, the only air pockets you are likely to find are accumulations of divers exhaust air, which is unsafe to breathe. Should snorkel be used in open water swim to cavern it should be removed and secured be for entering. CD demands more precise buoyancy control than open water diving. You are in an enclosed environment, must assume a slightly head-down, feet-up profile. This helps keep fin blast directed away from the floor where it can stir up silt. This combination of proper buoyancy control and profile is called trim.

OWD weight belt around waist it is the last piece of equipment to be donned before entering the water and first to be ditched in the event of an emergency. While this is an excellent axiom for open-water diving, there are several reasons why it is undesirable for CD. Ditching it can actually pin diver against ceiling and cause silting. Second wearing weights around the waist well result in shifting center of gravity low on the body, often forcing him to struggle through in a feet down, head up position. To avoid this modify location distributed across the body and amount of weight. Recalling that suit well compress during descent, it is logical to conclude that less weight is required to remain neutral at depth than to descend to that depth. And in fact, if weighted properly, it turns out that a diver needs only about 2/3 to ¾ of the weight carried on his weight belt, in order to stay neutral. The other 1/3 to ¼ is required only during descent. Once a few feet of depth is attained extra weight becomes excess baggage. Drop weights once removed are clipped to the guide lines. Jerry cans, you add or dump air, as makeshift buoyancy-compensating devices. Types of BC’s horse-collar, jacket, open-shoulder style and back mounted.

BREECHING EQUIPMENT:

These are used by most modern armies except the US, which sticks to the M203 grenade launcher. Bullet trap grenades do not require special ammunition or fittings; they slide over the muzzle of the rifle and are dispatched toward the enemy with a standard cartridge. BTGs turn every infantryman into a grenadier (i.e. anyone in the squad in a firing position to target that window the sniper just fired from can engage).

Simon aka Rifle-Launched Entry Munitions (RLEM) aka M100 GREM (grenade, rifle, entry munitions) door-breaching rifle grenades (357mm) from Rafael of Israel. U.S. Army, has ordered $52 million worth in 2000 a US$2.15 million contract delivered an initial 1,817 M100 grenades. The base contract included 720 XM101 reusable training rounds (with and without bullet traps), together with 10,000 impulse rounds; 15 inert models for training. Simon is for breaching steel or wooden doors (blows a man-sized hole) from a distance of 30 meters (with "little collateral effect") minimum stand-off range is 10m. It may be fired from a variety of rifles using regular bullets. It dose have more recoil than the standard rifle being used. It looks something like a fencing sword. The "blade" is slid into the barrel and fired by a grenade launching blank; the blade then trails the massive "handle" to provide stability in flight. The standard Simon grenade is the Simon 150. It consists of a 150g shaped explosive charge in a plastic housing, a long, light alloy stand-off rod, a stabilizer tail, a safe/arm mechanism and an impact detonator. Launch propulsion is provided by a standard blank cartridge, although an integral bullet trap allows the M100 to be launched using standard M855 Ball and M856 Tracer rounds. When the stand-off rod strikes the target, the impact detonator explodes the main charge. This directs a sharp blast wave forward to blast down the door and clear any associated booby traps. Back blast is minimal, so that once the door has been removed from its hinges and/or surround, the interior can be stormed immediately. While the Simon 150 can be used to blast down doors, the Simon 300 is used against hardened structures. The lighter Simon 50 can be used to blow in windows.

Explosive Cutting Tape; this relatively small device blows a man-sized hole through a brick wall.
BEAST (Breachers Explosive Access Selectable Tool) it is roughly two-by-five feet and looks something like a sleeping bag. Fastened to a wall, it can blow a man-sized hole through brick or masonry walls.

(UGVs, or unmanned ground vehicles)

SP 6/2000; The USMC is buying two models of robots for MOUT. The K8 weighs 30 lbs and is small 24x20x7 inches so it can be carried to where it is needed. It carries video, IR and still cameras and microphones. Using tracked paddles to get around, the K8 can climb stairs and rubble. If it gets knocked over its paddles can right it. Can survive a six-foot drop; often the Marines throw it through windows or doors. The other robot is the Lemming. Roughly the same size as the K8, it has an arm that can carry a camera so a picture can be obtained without exposing the entire robot to fire. The Lemming can also operate under water, making it perfect for checking out sewers.

12/16/08: the manufacturer of the largest robot, the 120 pound Talon, has developed a strong armed droid (most can left 10 lbs and don’t have a strong grip). It can lift up to 65 lbs and has a gripping strength of 100 lbs. With the help of a little duct tape, it can hold and manipulate the standard AN/PSS-14 mine detector, making it much safer to use. The Talon is more popular with police departments, than with combat troops (who prefer much smaller and lighter droids). Talon robot has an armed (with a 5.56mm machine-guns and 350 rounds of ammo) version. This Talon IIIB, aka Swords, It's seen as more of a security, than a combat, device. U.S. Army has contracted to buy 7,000. The new, 30 lbs (small) SUGV. They are part of a new generation of gear called FCS (Future Combat Systems). SUGV is still waiting for some of the high tech FCS communications and sensor equipment, and is using off-the-shelf stuff in the meantime. A slightly heavier "SUGV" (PackBot) has been available for the last few years. The PackBot 510 weighs 42 lbs and can carry up to 46 lbs of equipment. It uses a controller that looks, and operates, very much like a video game controller. The wireless controller can operate a PackBot at a distance of up to 1,000 meters. The battery lasts 2-12 hrs, depending on mission (12 hrs as sentinel). It's (28 inches long, 16 wide and 8 high). Top speed is about 2.5 meters a second, and it can climb stairs. It's waterproof and can travel up to ten km on one charge. This model will cost about $90,000 each. The 30 lbs robot, similar to the slightly larger PackBot. Both of these were designed and produced by iRobot. SUGV can carry 6.5 lbs of gear, and seven different "mission packages" are available. These include various types of sensors and double jointed arms (for grabbing things.) SUGV is waterproof and shock resistant. It fits into the standard army backpack, and is meant to operate in a harsh environment. The battery powered SUGV is operated wirelessly, or via a fiber optic cable. Batteries 8 hours or more. After that, you send out another SUGV with a fresh battery, and return the other one for a recharge. Another mission placing explosives by a door (to blow it open for the troops), producing smoke screens.

Less lethal;

SP 5/2000; the military insists that non-lethal is a misnomer, and that the term should properly be "less lethal".

Army Materiel Command has created "non-lethal capability sets" which are prepositioned in strategic locations. Each set has enough gear for 200 troops, and includes 57 types of items ranging from riot batons and shields to non-lethal ammunition and pepper spray. The Marines already have 27 such sets, and the Army plans to buy five per year.

SP 11/1999; USMC is developing the Modular Crowd Control Munitions, a modified Claymore mine with 600 rubber balls replacing the more traditional steel pellets. The MCCM is non-lethal (except within 5m). It has a maximum effective range of 15 meters. So that Marines do not confuse it with the real Claymore, the back is lime green and has raised bumps so that it can be identified by sight or (in darkness) by feel.

APPENDIX PCP Rule # 13.

Operations conducted in mountainous terrain may often require the crossing of swift flowing rivers or streams.

A dry crossing on fallen timber or logjams are preferable to attempting a wet crossing. Depending upon the time of year, the closer you are to the source, or headwaters, the better your chances are of finding a natural snow or ice bridge for crossing. If a dry crossing is unavailable, the following should be considered: the force of the flowing water is great and is most often underestimated. Levels change with freezing or melting conditions. The time of day can be an important factor. Although early morning is generally best because the water level is normally lower during this period, recent weather is a big factor; there may have been heavy rain in the last 8 hours which can turn steams into raging rivers. As glaciers, snow, or ice melt during the day, the rivers rise, reaching their maximum height between mid afternoon and late evening, depending on the distance from the source. Crossings, if made during the early morning, will also allow clothing to dry more quickly during the heat of the day. Normal locations of shallow water, upper course near saddles, just down stream form joining contributories, or in the deltas of single contributories especially at the widest, and thus shallowest, point of the river or stream. Sharp bends in the river should be avoided since the water is likely to be deep and have a strong current on the outside of the bend. Crossings will be easiest on a flat, sandy bottom. Large rocks and boulders provide poor footing and cause a great deal of turbulence in the water. Many mountain streams, especially those which are fed by glacier run-off, contain sections with numerous channels. A route through these braided sections is often easier than crossing one main channel. A drawback however is the greater distance to the far bank increasing exposure time however the sand and gravel bars between the channels can offer some cover or concealment.

Things to consider before crossing: Prepare men and equipment as far in advance as feasible. Final preparation should be completed in a secure perimeter on the near side just before crossing. All weak and non-swimmers should be identified so stronger swimmers may give assistance in crossing. Waterproof water-sensitive items. Wrap radios, binoculars, SOI, papers, maps and any extra clothing in (trash bags work well). These bags also provide additional buoyancy in case of a fall. Trousers are un-bloused and T-shirts and blouses are un-tucked i.e. pulled out of the trousers. This allows water to escape through the clothing. All pockets are buttoned. Depending on the circumstances of the crossing (for example, tactical situation, temperature of the air and water), the crossing can be made in minimal clothing so that dry clothing is available after the crossing. Boots should be worn to protect feet from rocks; however, socks and inner soles should be removed. Load-carrying equipment (LCE i.e. web gear) harness and load-bearing vest (LBV) are unbuckled and worn loosely the waist strap to packs are unbuckled so it can be jettisoned quickly. The rucksack should be worn well up on the back but not on top of the shoulders and snug enough so it does not flop around and cause you to lose your balance. Secure everything well within your pack. It is easier to find one large pack than to find several smaller items. Helmets are normally removed in slow moving streams with sandy or gravel bottoms. However, when crossing swift streams, especially those with large rocks the risk of head injury is high so the helmet is worn.

INDIVIDUAL CROSSINGS
Whenever possible, and when the degree of experience permits, streams should be forded individually for a speedier crossing. Cross at a slight downstream angle so as not to fight the current. The individual should generally face upstream and slightly sideways, leaning slightly into the current to help maintain balance. At times, he may choose to face more sideways as this will reduce the surface area of the body against the current. The feet should be shuffled along the bottom rather than lifted, with the downstream foot normally in the lead. There is normally less chance of a slip when stepping off with the current as opposed to stepping off against the current, take short, deliberate steps. Lunging steps and crossing the feet result in a momentary loss of balance and greatly increase the chance of a slip. If an obstacle is encountered, the feet should be placed on the upstream side of it where the turbulence is less severe and the water normally shallower. To increase balance, a long ice ax, sturdy tree limb, is used to give the individual a third point of contact. The staff should be used on the upstream side of the individual and slightly leaned upon for support. The staff should be moved first, then the feet shuffled forward to it. This allows two points of contact to be maintained with the streambed at all times.

Swimming:

Defensive swimming for white water, posture i.e. lay on your back feet kept at the surface to keep from snagging and helps you push off of things. Legs pointing down stream with body at 45-degree angle to shore, i.e. head is closest, so current will push you towards. Fanning the hands alongside the body to add buoyancy and to fend off submerged rocks. Try to avoid backwater eddies and converging currents as they often contain dangerous swirls. Bubbly water under falls has less buoyancy.

TEAM CROSSING

When the water level begins to reach thigh deep, or the current is swift, a team crossing may be used. For chain crossing, two or more individuals cross arms with each other and lock their hands in front of themselves. The line formed faces the far bank. The largest individual should be on the upstream end of the line to break the current and anchor the line. The line uses the same principles as for individuals, but with the added support of each other. The line should cross parallel to the direction of the current. The team still moves at a slight downstream angle, stepping off with the downstream foot in the lead. Cavalry crossing rivers, form two lanes abreast mounted across entire river, to break water up stream. If river to deep drawl it off into plains by cutting trenches.

ROPE INSTALLATIONS

When the water level begins to reach waist deep or the current is too swift for even a team crossing, you may install a handline or rope bridge. Crossing on a handline still requires each Marine to enter the water and get wet. A one-rope bridge may require only a couple of Marines to enter the water. Which one used will depend on the anchors available their height above the water, and the distance between them. The maximum distance a one-rope bridge is capable of spanning is approximately 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the rope. Natural anchors are not a necessity; however, the time required to find a site with solid natural anchors will probably be less than the time required to construct artificial anchors. In some areas, above the tree line for example, artificial anchors may have to be constructed. Dead man anchors buried in the ground or under a large pile of boulders work well. Logjams and other large obstructions present their own hazards. Once a logjam forms, the water starts to erode the stream bottom. Eventually deep drop-offs or holes may develop, especially around the sides and off the downstream end. A wet crossing in the vicinity of a log jam should be performed a good distance below or above it.

Establishing the Far Anchor; whether a handline or rope bridge is to be installed, someone must cross the stream with one end of the rope and anchor it. The swimmer should be belayed across for safety. The belay position should be placed as far above the crossing as possible. In the event that the current is too strong for the individual, he will pendulum back to the near bank. Rescuers are positioned at points the swimmer may pendulum back too. The initial crossing site should be free of obstacles that would snag the rope and prevent the pendulum action. The individual may attach the belay rope to his seat harness or a swami belt with a karabiner. He should NEVER tie directly into the rope when being belayed for a stream crossing. If the swimmer should be swept away and become tangled, he must be able to release himself quickly.

Figure 9-4 Stream crossing using a handline

The far anchor should be downstream from the near anchor, approximately thirty degrees. Here again, it is easier to move with the current as opposed to directly across or against it. The rope may be anchored immediately on the far bank, pulled tight, and anchored on the near bank, or it may be installed with a transport tightening system if a tighter rope is required. Crossing will always be performed on the downstream side of the handline. A second climbing rope is used as a belay (Figure 9-5). One end of the belay rope will be on the near bank and the other end on the far bank. An appropriate knot is tied into the middle of the belay rope to form two fixed loops with each loop being approximately 6 inches long. One loop is connected to the handline with karabiner(s) and the individual crossing connects one loop to himself. The loops are short enough so the individual is always within arms reach of the handline. The individuals are belayed from both the near and far banks. If a mishap should occur the individual can be retrieved from either shore, whichever appears closest. The belay on the opposite shore can be released allowing the individual to pendulum to the bank. The belay rope most not be tied to the belay person so it can be quickly released.

Figure 9-5 Belay rope for crossing using a handline

Under most circumstances, the handline should be crossed one person at a time. This keeps rope stretch and load on the anchors to a minimum. Rucksacks can be either carried on the back the same way as for individual crossings, or they can be attached to the handline and pulled along behind the individual.

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GLACIERS

Glacier formation and characteristics: A glacier is formed by the perennial accumulation of snow and other precipitation in a valley or draw. The accumulated snow eventually turns to ice. The "flow" or movement of glaciers is caused by gravity. There are a few different types of glaciers identifiable by their location or activity.

Valley glacier resides and flows in a valley. Cirque glacier forms and resides in a bowl. Hanging glacier these are a result of valley or cirque glaciers flowing and or deteriorating. As the movement continues, portions separate and are sometimes left hanging on mountains, ridgelines, or cliffs. Piedmont glacier formed by one or more valley glaciers; spreads out into a large area. Retreation glacier a deteriorating glacier; annual melt of entire glacier exceeds the flow of the ice. Surging glacier annual flow of the ice exceeds the melt; the movement is measurable over a period of time.

Figure 10-21 Glacier cross section

Figure 10-22 Glacier features

Firn is compacted snow that has been on the glacier at least one year. Firn is the building blocks of the ice that makes the glacier. The firn line can change annually. The firn line separates the accumulation and ablation zones. As you approach this area, you may see "strips" of snow in the ice. Be cautious, as these could be snow bridges a somewhat supportive structure of snow that covers a crevasse. Most of these are formed by the wind. The strength depends on the snow itself. The snow bridges will be weakest lower on the glacier. The accumulation zone is the area that remains snow-covered throughout the year because of year-round snowfall i.e. the snowfall exceeds melt. The ablation zone is the area where the snow melts off the ice in summer i.e. melt equals or exceeds snowfall. A moat is a wall formed at the head (starting point/stern) of the glacier. These are formed by heat reflected from the valley walls. A bergschrund is a large crevasse at the head of a glacier caused by separation of active (flowing) and inactive (stationary) ice. These will usually be seen at the base of a major incline and can make an ascent on that area difficult. A crevasse is a split or crack in the glacier surface. These are formed when the glacier moves over an irregularity in the bed surface. A transverse crevasse forms perpendicular to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 30 degrees or more. Longitudinal crevasses form parallel to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found where a glacier widens. Diagonal crevasses form at an angle to the flow of a glacier. These are normally found along the edges where a glacier makes a bend. Icefalls are a jumble of crisscross crevasses and large ice towers that are normally found where a glacier flows over a slope with a gradient change of 25 degrees or more. On the steep pitch of a glacier, ice flowing over irregularities and cliffs in the underlying valley floor cause the ice to break up into ice blocks and towers, crisscrossed with crevasses. This jumbled cliff of ice is known as an icefall. Although crevasses are visible in the ablation zone in the summer the accumulation zone will still have hidden crevasses. Seracs are large pinnacles or columns of ice that are normally found in icefalls or on hanging glaciers. Ice avalanches are falling chunks of ice normally occurring near icefalls or hanging glaciers. Pressure ridges are wavelike ridges that form on glacier normally after a glacier has flowed over icefalls. An ice mill is a hole in the glacier formed by swirling water on the surface. These can be large enough for a human to slip into. A glacier window is an opening at the snout of the glacier where water runs out of the glacier. The moraine is an accumulation of rock or debris on a glacier caused by avalanche of valley walls. The lateral moraine is formed on sides of glacier. The medial moraine is in the middle. This is also formed as two glaciers come together or as a glacier moves around a central peak. The terminal moraine is at the base of a glacier and is formed as moraines meet at the snout or terminus of a glacier. The ground moraine is the rocky debris extending out from the terminus of a glacier. This is formed by the scraping of earth as the glacier grew or surged and exposed as the glacier retreats. A Nunatak is a rock projection protruding through the glacier as the glacier flows around it.

The principle dangers and obstacles to movement on glaciers are concealed crevasses and snow cornices (bumps indicate locations) icefalls, and ice avalanches. Snow-covered crevasses make movement on a glacier extremely treacherous but possible. In winter, when visibility is poor, the difficulty of recognizing them is increased. Toward the end of the summer, crevasses are widest and covered by the least snow. Open crevasses are obvious, and their presence is an inconvenience rather than a danger to movement. Narrow cracks can be jumped, provided the take off and landing spots are firm and offer good footing. Wider cracks will have to be circumvented unless a solid piece of ice joins into an ice bridge. Such ice bridges are often formed in the lower portion of a crevasse, connecting both sides of it. In the area of the firn line, the zone that divides seasonal melting from permanent falls of snow, large crevasses remain open, though their depths may be clogged with masses of snow. Narrow cracks may be covered. In this zone, the snow, which covers glacier ice, melts more rapidly than that which covers crevasses. The difference between glacier ice and narrow snow-covered cracks is immediately apparent; the covering snow is white, whereas the glacier ice is gray. Usually the upper part of a glacier is permanently snow covered. The snow surface here will vary in consistency from dry powder to consolidated snow. Below this surface cover are found other snow layers that become more crystalline in texture with depth, and gradually turn into glacier ice. It is here that crevasses are most difficult to detect, for even wide crevasses may be completely concealed by snow bridges. They are formed by windblown snow that builds a cornice over the empty interior of the crevasse. As the cornice grows from the windward side, a counter drift is formed on the leeward side. The growth of the leeward portion will be slower than that to the windward so that the juncture of the cornices occurs over the middle of the crevasse only when the contributing winds blow equally from each side. Bridges can also be formed without wind, especially during heavy falls of dry snow. Since cohesion of dry snow depends only on an interlocking of the branches of delicate crystals, such bridges are particularly dangerous during the winter. When warmer weather prevails the snow becomes settled and more compacted, and may form firmer bridges. Once a crevasse has been completely bridged, its detection is difficult. Bridges are generally slightly concave because of the settling of the snow. This concavity is perceptible in sunshine, but difficult to detect in flat light.

Crossings; Crampons and an ice ax are all that is required to safely travel in the ablation zone in the summer. If a sled is crossed just pull it, do not secure it to a climber, but connect it to the rope with rope or webbing. If marking the route on the glacier is necessary for backtracking or to prevent disorientation in storms or flat-light conditions. The first team member can place a new marker when the last team member reaches the previous marker.

Securing the Backpack/Rucksack; if an individual should fall into a crevasse, it is essential that he be able to jettison the pack as an anchor if not the pack well force him into an upside down position while suspended in the crevasse. The pack can be attached to the climbing rope with a sling rope or webbing and a carabiner. A fallen climber can immediately drop the pack without losing it. The drop cord length should be minimal to allow the fallen individual to reach the pack after releasing it, if warm clothing is needed. When hanging from the drop cord, the pack should be oriented just as when wearing it (ensure the cord pulls from the top of the pack). Point man safety technique, pack is tided to rope with knots along its length, as an anchor, dragged behind you when crossing crevasses. Crossing the Bergschrund takes time to fine the right point to cross.

The first rule for movement on glaciers is to rope up. A roped team of two, while ideal for rock climbing, is at a disadvantage on a snow-covered glacier. The best combination is a three-man rope team. The risk of traveling in the accumulation zone can be managed to an acceptable level when ropes are used, three to four climbers will tie in to one rope at equal distances from each other, with three, double the rope and one ties into the middle and the other two at the ends. If four people are on a team, form a "z" with the rope and expand the "z" fully, keeping the end and the bight on each "side" of the "z" even. Tie in to the bights and the ends. Connect to the rope, the standard practice is with a locking carabiner on a figure-eight loop to the harness. This allows quick detachment of the rope for rescue purposes. The appropriate standing part of the rope is then clipped to the chest harness carabiner. Attach the Prusik as required. Prusik Knots; they are attached to the climbing rope for all glacier travel. The Prusiks are used as a self-belay technique to maintain a tight rope between individuals, to anchor the climbing rope for crevasse rescue, and for self-rescue in a crevasse fall. The Prusik slings are made from the 7-millimeter by 6-foot and 7-millimeter by 12-foot ropes. The ends of the ropes are tied together, forming endless loops or slings, with double fisherman's knots. Form the Prusik knot on the rope in front of the climber. An overhand knot can be tied into the sling just below the Prusik to keep equal tension on all the Prusik wraps. Attach this sling to the locking carabiner at the tie in point on the harness. An ascender can replace a Prusik sling in most situations. All personnel wear a seat/chest combination harness. The rope should be kept relatively tight either by Prusik belay or positioning of each person. At points of obvious weakness in the snow bridges, the members may decide to belay each other across the crevasse using one of the established belay techniques. If a rope team consists of only two people, the rope should be divided into thirds, as for a four-person team. The team members tie into the middle positions on the rope, leaving a third of the rope between each team member and a third on each end of the rope. The remaining "thirds" of the rope should be coiled and either carried in the rucksack, attached to the rucksack, or carried over the head and shoulder. This gives each climber an additional length of rope that can be used for crevasse rescue, should one men fall through and require another rope. If necessary, this excess end rope can be used to connect to another rope team for safer travel. Generally, the rope team members will move at the same time. If a team member falls into a crevasse, the remaining members go into team arrest. The simplest and most common method of rescue is for the team to pull them up.

Follow and probe the margin of a crevasse until a more resistant portion of the bridge is reached. When moving parallel to a crevasse, all members of the team should keep well back from the edge and follow parallel but offset courses. A crevasse should be crossed at right angles to its length. If the stability of the snow bridge is under question, they should proceed as follows for a team of three: distribute the weight over as wide an area as possible. Do not stamp the snow. Many fragile bridges can be crossed by lying down and crawling. Skis or snowshoes help distribute the weight nicely. The leader and second take up a position at least 10 feet back from the edge. The third goes into a self-belay behind the second and remains on a tight rope. The second belays the leader across. The boot-ax belay should be used only if the snow is deep enough for the ax to be inserted up to the head and firm enough to support the load. A quick ice ax anchor should be placed for the other belays. Deadman or equalizing anchors should be used when necessary. The leader should move forward, carefully probing the snow, to the far side of the crevasse, he continues as far across as possible so number two will have room to get across without number one having to move. The third assumes the middle person's belay position. The middle can be belayed across by both the first and last. Once the second is across, he assumes the belay position. Number one moves out on a tight rope and anchors in to a self-belay. Number two belays number three across.

Arresting and Securing a Fallen Climber; The length of the fall depends upon how quickly the fall is arrested and where in the bridge the break takes place. If the fall occurs close to the near edge of the crevasse, it usually can be checked before the climber has fallen more than 6 feet. However, if the person was almost across, the fall will cause the rope to cut through the bridge, and then even an instantaneous check will not prevent a deeper fall. A fall through a snow bridge results either in the person becoming jammed in the surface hole, or in being suspended in the crevasse by the rope. If the leader has fallen only partially through the snow bridge, he is supported by the snow forming the bridge and should not thrash about as this will only enlarge the hole and result in deeper suspension. All movements should be slow and aimed at rolling out of the hole and distributing weight over the most area. Should a team member other than the leader experience a fall, the rescue procedure will be same as for the leader, only complicated slightly by the position on the rope. The following scenario is an example of the sequence of events that take place after a fall by the leader in a three-person team. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is # 1.) Once the fall has been check/halted by the team arrest, the entire load must be placed on # 2 to allow # 3 to anchor the rope. Number 3 slowly releases his portion of the load onto # 2, always being prepared to go back into self-arrest should # 2's position begin to fail. Once # 2 is confident that he can hold the load, # 3 will proceed to # 2's position, using the Prusik as a self belay so the rope remains reasonably tight between # 2 and 3. When # 3 reaches # 2's position he will establish a bombproof anchor 3 to 10 feet in front of # 2 (on the load side), depending on how close # 2 is to the lip of the crevasse. This could be either a dead man or a two-point equalized anchor, as a minimum. Number 3 connects the rope to the anchor by tying a Prusik with his long Prusik sling onto the rope leading to # 1. An overhand knot should be tied into the long Prusik sling to shorten the distance to the anchor, and attached to the anchor with a carabiner. The Prusik knot is adjusted toward the load. Number 2 can then release the load of # 1 onto the anchor. Number 2 remains connected to the anchor and monitors the anchor. A fixed loop can be tied into the slack part of the rope, close to # 2, and attached to the anchor (to back up the Prusik knot). Number 3 remains tied in, but continues forward using a short Prusik as a self-belay. He must now quickly check on the condition of # 1 and decide which rescue technique will be required to retrieve him. If # 3 should fall through a crevasse, the procedure is the same except that # 1 assumes the role of # 3. Normally, if the middle person should fall through, # 1 would anchor the rope by himself. Number 3 would place the load on # 1's anchor, then anchor his rope and move forward with a Prusik self-belay to determine the condition of # 2. Note # 1 position is in the direction of travel, however # 3 position is better tested for strength. Use of Additional Rope Teams; Another rope team can assist. The # 1 of the assisting rope team should move to a point between the fallen climber and the arresting team members. The assisting team can attach to the arresting team's rope with a Prusik or ascender and both rope teams' can pull simultaneously. If necessary, a belay can be initiated by the arresting team while the assisting team pulls. The arresting team member closest to the fallen climber should attach the long Prusik to themselves and the rope leading to the fallen climber, and the assisting team can attach their Prusik or ascender between this long Prusik and the arresting team member. As the assisting team pulls, the Prusik belay will be managed by the arresting team member at the long Prusik. Snow bridges are usually strongest at the edge of the crevasse, and a fall is most likely to occur some distance away from the edge. In some situations, a crevasse fall will occur at the edge of the snow bridge, on the edge of the ice. If a fall occurs away from the edge, the rope usually cuts deeply into the snow, thus greatly increasing friction for those pulling from above. In order to reduce friction, place padding, such as an ice ax, ski, ski pole, or backpack/rucksack, under the rope and at right angles to the stress. Push the padding forward as far as possible toward the edge of the crevasse, thus relieving the strain on the snow. Ensure the padding is anchored from falling into the crevasse for safety of the fallen climber. Prusik Ascending Technique; There may be times when the remaining members of a rope team can render little assistance to the person in the crevasse. If poor snow conditions make it impossible to construct a strong anchor, the rope team members on top may have to remain in self-arrest. Other times, it may just be easier for the fallen climber to perform a self-rescue. Fixed Rope; if the fallen climber is not injured, he may be able to climb out on a fixed rope. Number 1 clips # 3's rope to himself. He then climbs out using # 3's rope as a simple fixed line while # 2 takes up the slack in # 1's rope through the anchor Prusik for a belay. (Figure 10-26) shows the rope configuration NOTE the long Prusik knot would be above the harness knot so one could raise the leg and knot before applying pressure to left yourself.) The technique is performed as follows: The fallen climber removes his pack and lets it hang below from the drop cord. The individual slides their short Prusik up the climbing rope as far as possible. The long Prusik is attached to the rope just below the short Prusik. The double fisherman's knot is spread apart to create a loop large enough for one or both feet. The fallen climber inserts his foot/feet into the loop formed allowing the knot to cinch itself down. The individual stands in the foot loop, or "stirrup," of the long sling. With his weight removed from the short Prusik, it is slid up the rope as far as it will go. The individual then hangs from the short Prusik while he moves the long Prusik up underneath the short Prusik again. The procedure is repeated, alternately moving the Prusiks up the rope, to ascend the rope. Once the crevasse lip is reached, the individual can simply grasp the rope and pull himself over the edge and out of the hole. Besides being one of the simplest rope ascending techniques, the short Prusik acts as a self-belay and allows the climber to take as long a rest as he wants when sitting in the harness. The rope should be detached from the chest harness carabiner to make the movements less cumbersome. However, it is sometimes desirable to keep the chest harness connected to the rope for additional support. In this case the Prusik knots must be "on top" of the chest harness carabiner so they can be easily slid up the rope without interference from the carabiner. The long Prusik sling can be routed through the chest harness carabiner for additional support when standing up in the stirrup.

Figure 10-26 Prusik ascending technique

Z-Pulley Hauling System; (Figure 10-27) if a fallen climber is injured or unconscious, he will not be able to offer any assistance in the rescue. The basic Z rig is a "3-to-1" system, providing mechanical advantage to reduce the workload on the individuals operating the haul line. In theory, it only takes about 33 lbs of pull on the haul rope to raise a 100 lbs load. In actual field use, some of this mechanical advantage is lost to friction as the rope bends sharply around carabiners and over the crevasse lip. The use of mechanical rescue pulleys can help reduce this friction in the system. The following describes rigging of the system. (This scenario is for a team of three, each person referred to by position; the leader is number 1.) After the rope team has arrested and secured # 1 to the anchor, and they have decided to install the Z rig, # 2 will attach himself to the anchor without using the rope and clear the connecting knot used. Number 3 remains connected to the rope. The slack rope exiting the anchor Prusik is clipped into a separate carabiner attached to the anchor. A pulley can be used here if available. Number 3 will use # 2's short Prusik to rig the haul Prusik. He moves toward the crevasse lip (still on his own self-belay) and ties # 2's short Prusik onto # 1's rope (load rope) as close to the edge as possible. Another carabiner (and pulley if available) is clipped into the loop of the haul Prusik and the rope between # 3's belay Prusik and the anchor is clipped (or attached through the pulley). Number 3's rope becomes the haul rope. Number 3 then moves towards the anchor and # 2. Number 2 could help pull if necessary but first would connect to the haul rope with a Prusik just as # 3. If the haul Prusik reaches the anchor before the victim reaches the top, the load is simply placed back on the anchor Prusik and # 3 moves the haul Prusik back toward the edge. The system is now ready for another haul.

CAUTION; The force applied to the fallen climber through use of the Z-pulley system can be enough to destroy the harness-to-rope connection or injure the fallen climber if excess force is applied to the pulling rope. With the "3-to-1" system, the load (fallen climber) will be raised 1 foot for every 3 feet of rope taken up during the haul.

The Z-pulley adds more load on the anchor due to the mechanical advantage. The anchor should be monitored for the duration of the rescue.

Figure 10-27 Z-pulley hauling system

APPENDIX COE rule # 11

BALLISTICS is a science dealing with the motion and flight characteristics of projectiles. Ballistics can be divided into three distinct types: Internal the interior workings of a weapon and the functioning of its ammunition. External the flight of the bullet from the muzzle to the target. Terminal what happens to the bullet after it hits the target.

Terminology

Dope; is the settings on the sights of a weapon.

Trajectory; as the projectile travels downrange, the velocity is decreased by air drag, giving way to the inevitable force of gravity. These effects create trajectory i.e. the relationship of a projectile and the line of sight at any given range (normally expressed in inches).

Apex, aka Midrange Trajectory or Maximum Ordinate; is the point where the projectile is at its highest in relation to the line of sight. This point must be known to utilize Kentucky windage.

Bullet Drop; how far the bullet drops from the muzzle aka the line of departure to the point of impact.

Line of Sight; is an imaginary straight line extending from the shooter's eye through the telescopic sight, or rear and front sight, to the point of aim on target.

Zero Range; is where the projectile intersects the line of sight. It occurs at two points-one on the way up and one on the way down.

Muzzle Velocity; the speed of the bullet as it leaves the barrel, measured in feet per second. It varies according to temperature, and humidity. The bullet reaches its maximum velocity 76 feet from the muzzle and slows down from there.

Time of Flight; time it takes the bullet to reach the target.

Retained Velocity; the speed of the bullet when it reaches the target.

Efficiency of the bullet aka bullet ballistic coefficient; the imaginary perfect bullet is rated as being (1.00). Match bullets range from .500 to about .600. The 7.62-mm special ball (M118) is rated at .530 (Table 3-2).

Internal Ballistics; all 5.56-mm cartridges can be fired safely in M16A1, A2 and the M4 carbine. There are internal differences that affect firing accuracy. 5.56 mm, M193 ball 0.75 in, M196 tracer 0.90 in, M855 ball 0.900 in, M856 tracer 1.15 in. With its increase in length, weight, and configuration the M855 bullet requires different twists in the barrels, lands and grooves to stabilize the bullet in flight. The M16A1 has a 1:12 barrel twist (the bullet rotates once for every 12 inches of travel down the barrel). The M16A2/A3/A4 and the M4 carbine have a 1:7 barrel twist. The A1 does not put enough spin on the heavier M855 to stabilize it, causing erratic performance and inaccuracy (1 foot shot groups at 300 feet and 6 foot shot groups at 900 feet) note difference in accuracy data in rule # 8 COE. With a M16A2 zeroed with M855 ammunition and then re-zeroed with M193 ammunition at 300 meters. There is practically no difference between the trajectories or accuracy of the rounds to a range of 500 meters. The M16A2 firing M855 or 56 ammunition are more effective at ranges out to and beyond 500 meters due to a better stabilization of the round.

External Ballistics; effects on the bullets trajectory.

Drag; is the effect the atmosphere has on the bullet. Factors affecting drag i.e. density of the air are temperature, altitude/barometric pressure, humidity, efficiency of the bullet, and wind. These factors decrease the speed of the bullet. The less dense the air, the less drag and vice versa.

Temperature; deviation from standard daytime temperature (59 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees Celsius) affects bullet trajectory. As the temperature rises, the air density is lowered. Since there is less resistance, velocity increases and the point of impact rises. This is in relation to the temperature at which the rifle was zeroed i.e. compared to dope expected. A 20-degree change equals a one-minute elevation change in the strike of the bullet. When ammunition sits in direct sunlight, the burn rate of powder is increased, resulting in greater muzzle velocity and higher impact. A cooler temperature causes lower chamber pressure, which reduces the initial/muzzle velocity.

Altitude/barometric pressure; the greater the altitude, the thinner the air and the longer the bullet will travel (with a correspondingly flatter trajectory). Higher altitude equals less air pressure, air less dense, less drag, thus, the bullet is more efficient and impacts higher. With a rifle zeroed at sea level impact will be the point of aim at sea level. However, when zeroed at sea level and fired at an altitude of 5,000 feet (range 700 m) impact is 1.6 minutes higher. Each 5,000-foot elevation will raise the strike of the bullet 1/2 to 1 minute of angle. (NJD up to 15000 feet where every thing changes).

Humidity; varies along with the altitude and temperature. When humidity goes up, impact goes down; when humidity goes down, impact goes up. A 20 % change in humidity equals about one minute as a rule of thumb.

Gravity; at extended ranges, the sniper must compensate for this through elevation adjustments or hold-off techniques. The sniper actually aims the muzzle of his rifle above his line of sight. The force of gravity on a bullet is constant regardless of its weight, shape, or velocity. However the greater the bullets angle from the vertical, the more effect gravity will have on its trajectory.

Wind; wind poses the biggest problem. The effect that wind has on the bullet increases with range. This is due mainly to the bullet's slowing velocity combined with a longer flight time, allows the wind to have more effect. The result is a loss of stability. Flag method; a common method of estimating the velocity of the wind during training is to watch the range flags. The sniper determines the angle between the flag and pole, in degrees, then divides by the constant number 4. The result gives the approximate velocity in miles per hour. If no flag is visible, the sniper holds a piece of paper, grass, or some other light material at shoulder level, then drops it. He then points directly at the spot where it lands and divides the angle between his body and arm by the constant number 4. This gives him the approximate wind velocity in miles per hour. Mirage method; with the telescope, the sniper can see a mirage as long as there is a difference in ground and air temperatures. In general, velocity of the wind, up to about 12 mph, can be readily determined by observing the mirage. Beyond that speed, the movement of the mirage is too fast for detection of minor changes. The effect is that the wind bows or tilts the shimmers of the mirage like grass being blown by wind. Shimmers appear horizontal at about 8-12 mph. Since the wind nearest to midrange has the greatest effect on the bullet, he tries to determine velocity at that point. He focuses on an object at midrange, and then places the scope back onto the target without readjusting the focus. He can also focus on the target, then back off the focus one-quarter turn counterclockwise. This makes the target appear fuzzy, but the mirage will be present. As observed through the telescope, the mirage appears to move with the same velocity as the wind, except when blowing straight into or away from the scope. Then, the mirage gives the appearance of moving straight upward with no lateral movement. This is called a boiling mirage. A boiling mirage may also be seen when the wind is constantly changing direction. For example, a full-value wind blowing from 9 to 3 o'clock suddenly changes direction. The mirage will appear to stop moving from left to right and present a boiling appearance. When this occurs, the inexperienced observer directs the sniper to fire with the "0" windage. Unless there is a no-value wind, the sniper must wait until the boil disappears. Beaufort wind scale: 0-1 mph Calm, smoke rises vertically. 1-3 mph Light air, weather vain inactive, smoke drifts, felt on moist face or skin, sea ripples resembling fish scales. 4-7 mph Light breeze, leaves move on plants may rustle, small wavelets crest have glassy appearance. 8-12 Gentle breeze, leafs and small twigs, loose papers, light flags extended, long wave lets crests begin to break, scattered white caps. 13-18 mph Moderate breeze, small branches sway, dust, fairly frequent white caps. 19-24 mph Fresh breeze, small trees and tops of bushes. Crest braking, wavelets on inland waters. 24-31 Strong breeze, large branches sway, felt pushing against body, whistling heard in utility wires, umbrellas to difficult to use, white foam streaks everywhere some spray. 32-38 mph Moderate gale, whole trees sway, difficult to walk against, foam with waves begins to brown in streaks along direction of wind. 39-46 mph Fresh gale, twigs break off high waves of great length, large streaks. 47-54 mph Strong gales, light damage to buildings, shingles blow off roofs, crest begin to roll over, spray may effect visibility. 55-63 mph Whole gale/storm, seldom experienced inland, trees up rooted, crest large and over hanging, foam in great patches, sea takes on white appearance. Tumbling of seas becomes heavy and shock like. 64-73 mph Storm, midsize ships can be for a time lost behind waves. Everywhere the edges of the wave crest are brown. 74 mph Hurricane, air filled with spray and foam, sea completely white. Category 1) 74-95 mph weak surge 4’-5’, Cat. 2) 96-110 mph moderate surge 6’-8’, Cat. 3) 111-130 mph strong surge 9-12’, Cat. 4) 131-155 mph very strong surge 13’-18’, Cat. 5) above 155 mph devastating surge above 18’. Definition of wind speeds, based on wind having one minute sustained surge. Otherwise considered gust. West of international date line AKA typhoons. In lower latitudes move west or N/W at 10-15mph. At 25-30 degrees N latitude direction changes to N/E with increased forward speed. Western altitude. Eastern pacific season June 1- November 30.

Hurincane

Dennis eye direct hit on Havana wind 10-20 mph reduction or increase every 50-100 miles distance.

Emily not lg. in area size cat. ¾ winds 75 mph out to 35 miles rg. Tropical storm strength 140 mi rg.

Terminal Ballistics.

Bullet penetration depends on the range, velocity, bullet characteristics, and target material. Greater penetration does not always occur at close range with certain materials since the high velocity of the 5.56-mm bullet causes it to disintegrate upon impact.

Bullet Dispersion:

Increase of Shot-Group Size. Just as the distance covered by a minute of angle (MOA) increases each time the range increases, a shot group can be expected to do the same. If there are 2.54 cm between bullets on a 25-meter target, there will be an additional 2.54 cm of dispersion for each additional 25 meters of range. A 2.54-cm group at 25 meters (about 3.5 MOA) is equal to a 25.4-cm shot group at 250 meters. NJD or a 30.5 cm shot group at 300 meters.

CONVERSION OF WIND VELOCITY TO MOA

All telescopic sights have windage adjustments that are graduated in MOA or fractions thereof. A MOA (a term used to discuss shot dispersion) is the standard unit of measurement used in adjusting sights. It is also used to indicate accuracy. Measured using the muzzle as a base to the impact point. A circle is divided into 360 degrees or 6400 mils. Each degree is further divided into 60 minutes (1/60^th of a degree); therefore, a circle contains 21,600 minutes. NJD 1 degree equals 17.8 mils and 1 mil equals 3.3 MOA. (1 MOA also equals 1/17.8 of 1mil). A MOA would cover 2.54 cm (1 inch) at a distance of 91.4 meters (100 yards/300 feet). When the range is increased to 182.8 meters (200 yards/600 feet), the angle covers twice the distance. 1 MOA = 5 inches at 500 meters. 8.6 inches at 750 meters, 11.5 inches at 1000 meters.

Windage; example: The sniper fires at a 600-meter target with windage setting on 0; the round impacts 15 inches right of center. He will then add 2 1/2 minutes left windage to dial (L-2 1/2).

Table 5-3 Calculated adjusted aiming point based
on wind speed (full value)

Elevation; example: The target distance is 600 meters; the sniper sets the elevation dial to 6. The sniper fires and the round hits the target 6 inches low of center. He then adds one minute (one click) of elevation (+ 1). NJD with the M193 mid range (highest point of trajectory) is 250 meters. Max effective range 460 meters. Bullet drop is about 5 inches from 460 to 500 meters. And additional 5 inches to 600 meters. And an additional 10 inches at 700 meters. After that forget it. With M855 mid range is approximately 400 meters. After that bullet drop is 5 inches at 500 meters, 5 additional at 600 meters, 10 additional at 7/8/900 meters for a total drop from zenith (mid range) of 6 feet at 1000 meters.

Hold off is shifting the point of aim to achieve a desired point of impact. Certain situations, such as multiple targets at varying ranges and rapidly changing winds, do not allow proper windage and elevation adjustments.

When the sniper fires at a target at ranges greater than the set range (dope on the weapon) his bullet will hit below the point of aim. At lesser ranges, his bullet will hit higher than the point of aim. If the sniper understands the trajectories and bullet drop over maximum ranges, he will be a much better sniper. For example, dope sit for 500 meters, and another target appears at 600 meters. The holdoff would be 25 inches above the center of mass in order to hit the center of mass. If another target were to appear at 400 meters, aim 14 inches below the center of mass. The vertical mil dots on the M3A scope's reticle can be used as aiming points for elevation holdoffs. Example, target at 500 meters, dope set at 400 meters, place the first mil dot (that is the one above horizontal cross hair) 5 inches lower along the vertical line on the target's center mass. This gives the sniper a 15-inch holdoff at 500 meters.

For general (rule of thumb) adjustments use the Clicks formula is yards in hundreds, multiplied by winds in MPH, divided by a constant. Constants are 15 for 100-500 yards, 14 for 600, 13 for 700-800, 12 for 900, and 11 for 1k. Ex; 10 mph winds, range 400 yards. You multiply 10 x 4. Your yards are figured in whole hundreds, 10 x 4 = 40 answer is divided by 15. Ex: answer remainder is two so two clicks windage added to weapon. If the target is 700 meters away and the wind velocity is 10 mph, the formula is 7x10 (over)/13 = 5.38 minutes or 5 ½ minutes. Note if wind is ½ value you would divide answer by two or cut it in half, after 15. Winds blowing directly at you or from stern have zero value. 45 degrees angle is a ½ value, 90 degrees full value.

Target appearance, Front Sight Post Method; man size target at 175 yards, appears to be same width as front sight post. 300 yards ½ as wide. If the target is 1/4 the width of the front sight post, then the target is approximately 600 yards away. Appears twice as wide at 90 yards. At 200 meters a human size target is clear and details can be seen. At 300 meters still clear, but no details can be seen. At 400 meters outline is clear; however, the target itself is blurry. At 500 meters the body tapers and the head disappears. At 600 meters the body resembles a wedge shape.

The front sight post covers about 1.6 or 1.5 inches at 15 meters and about 16/15 inches at 150 meters.

NOTE; NJD math is a real weak point of mine, so I hope these formulas are correct but can not vouch for them.

Mil-Relation Formula; this method uses a mil-scale reticle located in the M19 binoculars (Figure 4-19) or in the M3A scope (Figure 4-20). The team must know the target size in inches or meters. Keep a data book of measurements. Vehicles; for dimensions use the height of road wheels. Length of main gun tubes. Urban environment; size of doorways, windows. Width of streets and lanes (average width of a paved lanes in the US is 8 feet). All measurements are converted into constants and computed with different mil readings. (Examples, six foot man, height in mils 1, standing 2k or setting 1k. H in M 1.5, standing 1333 or setting 666. So 2/1k/500, 2.5/800/400, 3/666/333, 3.5/571/266, 4/500/250, 4.5/444/222, 5/400/200, 5.5/364/182, 6/333/167, 6.5/308/154, 7/266/143). (To convert inches to meters, multiply the number of inches by .0254.) With targets entrenched in bunkers or in dense vegetation, if you can’t distinguish the bottom of a target, estimation should be halved. Then compare the target size to the mil-scale reticle and use the following formula:

Photos edited

Laser range finders; when the sniper team has access to a laser observation set (AN/GVS-5) it should always be used. When aiming the laser support it much the same as a weapon to ensure accuracy. If the target is too small, aiming the laser at a larger object near the target will suffice. Range Card Method; is quick and with laser range finders used to produce can be very accurate.

The old 100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method; to use this method, you must be able to visualize a distance of 100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, Beyond 500 meters, select a point halfway to the object and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to find the range to the object. Terrain with much dead space limits accuracy.

APPENDIX Safeguard

Abandoning ship or aircraft at sea; Note the difference between true and magnetic north. Your last position latitude and longitude. Last heading and speed. Direction and speed of prevailing winds, and currents. Location of shipping lanes and nearest land. The more people that know information the better. Once ashore during rain fall note the water running with slope, it is a good indicator of the lay of the land.

Note first three minutes and last eight minutes of flight is when most aircraft crashes accrue. You usually have 90 seconds tow get out of survivable crash.

Disaster relief; immediate needs are open roads, check points, information centers, photo, and berry (lye) or burn the dead or use dry ice to store. DNA, finger prints, dental records. Information gathered on survivors too. Treat or get read of standing water (bleach or purifying tabs). Laundry and disinfection facilities. One shower head per 3 to 30 people.

Remember where you are. Relax, remain clam, familiarity breads security. Survival planning, through up temporary shelter to separate yourself from elements. This will enable you to think clearly. You should rest until the shock and fatigue were off. Leave extensive planning till later. Divide food supplies 2/3 for first time period, 1/3 for last. Low on water cut back on eating. Body uses water to carry off excess waist. Lack of water will cause dehydration. Deciding weather to move or stay. Move if you’re certain of your location and in what direction and how far to help. You have enough supplies for trip. After waiting long enough for help. Leaving base mark paths with bent brush, notches or rocks. Plan and make your way carefully do not dash blindly forward. Undue haste makes waist. Do not take unnecessary risk. Remember that nature and the elements are neither your friend or foe, they are actually disinterested. Every environment has its own physical condition and rhythm. Noises, civil traffic, animal’s, birds, learn from animals, they can also give your present’s away, note act like the natives.

In survival mode you must not leave evidence like picked leafs, as a sing of your eating etc.

The quicker you can butcher a deer the better, an expert butcher ½ hour for a full grown cow. Intestines are dropped into pre-dug pit. All the meat would fit in two Alice packs.

Smoke dry meat under a tent to make biltong or jerky.

Blocks of Hexamine for fuel.

Disasters;

Kit;

Can and bottle openers. Camp stoves and oven mitts, paper plates and utensils, towelettes. Plastic trash bags, a mop and bucket. A clothesline and pins. Chain saw.

Chlorine bleach or tincture of iodine. Lime to sterilize garbage. Cat litter.

First aid kit;

Hypoallergenic adhesive tape. Scissors tweezers, needle moistened towelettes, thermometer, tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant. Latex gloves, sunscreen, aspirin, anti diarrhea med, syrup of ipecac (used to induce vomiting and advocated by poison control center) Activated charcoal (used if advocated by poison control center) laxatives. Insulin supply will keep safely for a month at 85 degrees. Have candy or juice handy for insulin reactions.

Buy carbon monoxide alarms.

General tips;

Determine a safe room no windows walls close together.

Pick two places to meet one out side home and another away form neighborhood. Establish an out of town Phone number to relay messages.

Set up system to keep track of people who leave group.

During storm, stay away form windows keep something with you such as a pillow for protection.

Children should help in prep work to allow them to talk about there fears.

Don’t forget to bring your sense of humor.

Fill car’s gas tank and keep it topped off.

Disconnect natural gas and propane to individual appliances at the supply valves near each unit. Locate turn off valves for water, electricity and gas. Do not turn off the main gas line.

Practice fire safely both when refueling generator and when storing gas.

Store gas in a locked area.

Turn off generator and allow to cool before refueling, turn off appliances before restarting generator. Never try generator directly into house wiring, could sock linemen working on lines.

Check battery powered equipment. A 12 volt motorcycle battery can keep your burglar alarm running.

Refill pending prescriptions. List of meds and copy of prescriptions doctors names. Proof of occupancy such as a utility bill.

Make sure your pit has ID tags, micro chip or tattoos carry photo of your pet, reptiles are prohibited at shelters.

Make inventory of possessions. Take pictures or video rooms. Place on disk. In a rugged waterproof container collect medical and property insurance papers immunization records.

If paper work got soaked place it in freezer to arrest ink running prevent mold and mildew until it can be freeze dried by pros. With no electricity separate them and place them out to dry the most critical period for mold growth is the first 10 days. If mold forms don’t try to rub it off, air or freeze dry them. With book spread them out fan wise you can sprinkle cornstarch between the pages. Leave it on for several hours. Then brush it off.

Count number of steps to exits. Elevator cars are located at top of shaft to avoid flood damage or debris. Cover indoor furniture with plastic. Elevate it on blocks or two by fours.

Do not trim braches from trees, they can become projectiles.

Bring in any out door items that could become projectiles, anchor anything you can’t bring in.

Remove external antennas.

To save a tree that has not broken its truck or lost large portions of its roots. Cover roots with blank or burlap water roots and top several times a day. Pools should not be drain in areas of high water table with floods water level could cause pools to pop out of the ground.

Water; figure on using one gallon per person per day. Fill jugs with water freeze as much water as you can. Water heaters hold several gallons of clean water that you can use after storm for sanitary needs. Before storm unhook or shut off water heater from its source. Store water in bath tube, sinks and toilet tank for washing and flushing boil. Sponge the tub with a solution of bleach and water. Cover tube after filling it use four drops of unscented bleach per gallon of water. Use silicone caulking for bathtub and sink drains to make them water tight. Use a thick bead it will pull away cleanly when dry. Store water for only 3 mouths bottled water for only 6 mouths.

With water after boiling you can put oxygen back into it by pouring it back and forth between two clear containers it well taste better. Or you can add 8 drops of liquid bleach per gallon stir and let stand for 30 minutes. Purification tables at sporting good stores or pharmacies.

Turn refrigerator and freezer settings to the coldest levels. Group foods together to conserve cooling in a half full freezer. Freeze water in bottles or bags ¾ full, place in empty spaces of freezer.

WHEN SELECTING A GENERATOR, THERE ARE SEVERAL IMPORTANT FEATURES TO CONSIDER:
Engine life, Run time, Mobility, Noise level, Rated/Surge watts

WATTAGE WORKSHEET;

Watts = volts x AMPs. Rated, or running watts, are the continuous watts needed to keep items running. Surge, or starting watts, are extra watts needed for two to three seconds to start motor-driven products like a refrigerator or band saw. Only motor-driven items have an additional surge requirement. The additional surge watts required may be estimated at 1 - 2x the rated/running watts. A refrigerator that runs on 500 watts could have a surge or start up wattage of 2000. Dryer that runs on 5400 surge 6800. In a typical home, essential items will average 4000-6000 watts of power to run. Since surge watts are only needed during the first few seconds of operation, and in most cases, only one item will start or cycle at the same time, only one additional surge watt item is used to calculate your total surge watt requirement estimate.

Making a worksheet. You will have 3 columns:
a) Items i.e. tool or appliance
b) Rated (running) watts
c) Additional surge (starting) watts

1) Select the items you wish to power at the same time. Note the rated watts and additional surge watt requirements. 2) Add the rated watts for all items.

3) Select the one individual item with the highest number of additional surge watts. Take this number, add it to your total rated (running) watts, and enter the total in the Total Surge Watts box. You will then have a total for the total rated (running) watts and a total for the total surge watts.

NOTE IT MIGHT BE BETTER TO ORGANIZE THESE ITEMS FROM THE ONES THAT USE THE MOST TO THE ITEMS THAT USE THE LEAST.

WATTAGE REFERENCE GUIDE

Light bulb 75 watts

Quartz Halogen Work Light 1000 watts

Security System 80 watts

Garage Door Opener -1/2 HP 480 running watts & 520 starting watts

Garage door opener 1700

Deep freezer 500 running watts & 500 starting watts

Refrigerator/Freezer 800 running watts & 1600 starting watts

Microwave Oven 1000 watts

Coffee Maker 1500 watts

Electric Stove - single element 1500 watts

Dishwasher - hot dry 1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts

Iron 1200 watts

Washing Machine 1150 running watts & 2250 starting watts

Clothes Dryer 5400 running watts & 1350 starting watts

Hair Dryer 1250 watts

Vacuum 1200

Stereo Receiver 450 watts

Radio 300 watts

AM/FM clock radio 100 watts

DVD/CD player 100 watts

VCR 100 watts

Color Television 27" - 500 watts

P/C with 17" monitors 800 watts

Fax machine 65 watts

Copy Machine 1600 watts

Laser Printer 950 watts

Inkjet Printer 80 watts

Electric water heater - 40 gallon 4000 running watts

Space Heater 1800 watts

Heat Pump 4700 running watts & 4500 starting watts

Furnace Fan Blower 1/2 HP 800 running watts & 1300 starting watts

Table Fan - 14" 200 running watts & 400 starting watts

Ceiling Fan 800 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Window AC - 10000 BTU 1200 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Window AC - 12000 BTU 3250 running watts & 3950 starting watts

Central AC - 10000 BTU 1500 running watts & 4500 starting watts

Sump pump 800 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Water Pump (well or pool) 1/3 HP 1000 running watts & 2000 starting watts

Airless Sprayer - 1/3 HP 600 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Reciprocating saw 960 watts

Electric drill - 1/2 HP 1000 running watts & 1000 starting watts

Circular Saw - 7 1/2 HP 1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts

Miter saw - 10" 1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Planer/Jointer - 6" 1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Table/radial arm saw 10" 2000 running watts & 2000 starting watts

Air compressor - 1 1/2 HP 2500 running watts & 2500 starting watts

Light Bulb (multiply the watts times the number of bulbs in your house) 60 (each) 0

Quartz Halogen Work light 300 Watts 300 0

Coffee Maker 1000 0

Oven 3,410 0

Refrigerator/Freezer 600 2,100

Toaster Oven1 200 0

Electric Range (8-inch element) 40 0

Home Theater System 625 0

Television 400 0

Radio 100 0

Microwave Oven 1,000 Watts 1,000 0

X-Box, Game Cube, Play station 40 0

Ceiling Fan 800 2,000

Air Conditioning (Central) 10,000 BTUs 1,500 3,000

Air Conditioning (Central) 24,000 BTUs 3,800 4,950

Air Conditioning (Window) 10,000 BTUs 1,200 1,800

Furnace Fan 1/4 Horsepower 600 400

Furnace Fan 1/2 Horsepower 875 1,475

Dishwasher 400 0

Clothes Dryer 5,400 1,350

Curling Iron1 500 0

Hair Dryer 1,250 Watts 1,250 0

Iron 1 200 0

Washing Machine 1,150 2,250

Desktop Computer 800 0

Fax 250 0

Laptop Computer 600 0

Printer 950 0

Security System 500 0

Garage Door Opener 1/2 Horsepower 875 2,350

Air Compressor 1 Horsepower 1,500 3,000

Pressure Washer 1,200 2,400

Electric Drill 3/8-inch, 4 Amps 440 600

Circular Saw 7-1/4-inch 1,400 2,300

Table Saw 10-inch 2,000 2,000

Chainsaw 1,200 1,200

Jig Saw 720 1,800

Router 600 1,500

Orbital Sander 600 1,800

Lawn Mower 1,400 2,920

String Trimmer 600 900

Edger 960 1,400

WATTAGE REFERENCE GUIDE

HOME

Light bulb

75 watts

Deep freezer

500 running watts & 500 starting watts

Sump pump

800 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Refrigerator/Freezer

800 running watts & 1600 starting watts

Water Well Pump 1/3 HP

1000 running watts & 2000 starting watts

HEATING/COOLING

Space Heater

1800 watts

Table Fan - 14"

200 running watts & 400 starting watts

Ceiling Fan

800 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Furnace Fan Blower 1/2 HP

800 running watts & 1300 starting watts

Window AC - 10000 BTU

1200 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Window AC - 12000 BTU

3250 running watts & 3950 starting watts

Central AC - 10000 BTU

1500 running watts & 4500 starting watts

Heat Pump

4700 running watts & 4500 starting watts

KITCHEN

Microwave Oven

1000 watts

Coffee Maker

1500 watts

Electric Stove - single element

1500 watts

Dishwasher - hot dry

1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts

FAMILY ROOM

DVD/CD Player

100 watts

VCR

100 watts

Stereo Receiver

450 watts

Color Television

27" - 500 watts

LAUNDRY ROOM

Iron

1200 watts

Washing Machine

1150 running watts & 2250 starting watts

Clothes Dryer

5400 running watts & 1350 starting watts

OFFICE EQUIPMENT

Personal computer with 17" monitor

800 watts

Fax maching

65 watts

Laser Printer

950 watts

Inkjet Printer

80 watts

Copy Machine

1600 watts

OTHER

Security System

80 watts

AM/FM clock radio

100 watts

Garage Door Opener -1/2 HP

480 running watts & 520 starting watts

Hair Dryer

1250 watts

Electric water heater - 40 gallon

4000 watts

DO-IT-YOURSELF JOBSITE

Quartz Halogen Work Light

1000 watts

Airless Sprayer - 1/3 HP

600 running watts & 1200 starting watts

Reciprocating saw

960 watts

Electric drill - 1/2 HP

1000 running watts & 1000 starting watts

Circular Saw - 7 1/2 HP

1500 running watts & 1500 starting watts

Miter saw - 10"

1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Planer/Jointer - 6"

1800 running watts & 1800 starting watts

Table/radial arm saw 10"

2000 running watts & 2000 starting watts

Air compressor - 1 1/2 HP

2500 running watts & 2500 starting watts

Radio Frequency List; Common radio frequency bands include the following:

AM radio - 535 kilohertz to 1.7 megahertz

Short wave radio - bands from 5.9 megahertz to 26.1 megahertz

Citizens band (CB) radio - 26.96 megahertz to 27.41 megahertz

Television stations - 54 to 88 megahertz for channels 2 through 6

FM radio - 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz

Television stations - 174 to 220 megahertz for channels 7 through 13

What is funny is that every wireless technology you can imagine has its own little band. There are hundreds of them! For example:

Garage door openers, alarm systems, etc. - Around 40 megahertz

Standard cordless phones: Bands from 40 to 50 megahertz

Baby monitors: 49 megahertz

Radio controlled airplanes: Around 72 megahertz, which is different from...

Radio controlled cars: Around 75 megahertz

Wildlife tracking collars: 215 to 220 megahertz

MIR space station: 145 megahertz and 437 megahertz

Cell phones: 824 to 849 megahertz

New 900-MHz cordless phones: Obviously around 900 megahertz!

Air traffic control radar: 960 to 1,215 megahertz

Global Positioning System: 1,227 and 1,575 megahertz

Deep space radio communications: 2290 megahertz to 2300 megahertz

S-U-R-V-I-V-A-L

S ize up the situation, surroundings, physical condition, equipment

U se all your senses

R emember where you are

V anquish fear and panic

I mprovise and improve

V alue living

A ct like the natives

L ive by your wits

P-38 john wayne can opener

Photo edited

FACES: F) Faith and hope; your own care stay refreshed. Your worst enemy morbid rumination. Vanquish temper something up sets you take a break. Loneliness and boredom can only exist in the absence of affirmative thought and action. Motto illegitimate non carborundum i.e. “don’t let the bastards grind you down”. Value living. Tolerating pain, understanding source of pain well help ease your mind, counter anxiety. Take pride in your ability to take it. Concentrate on job at hand. Cold slows blood flow makes you sleepy. A) Aspirations or goals; realize how activities fit into overall plan of survival. Tell your self, you’re going to live to a certain date, i.e. birthday, x-mass or weekend. Take pride in each accomplishment. Fatigue caused by mental outlook overcome by a change of actively i.e. change eating times. Helping others is great for your health. C) Communications with others, share thoughts, you never known what might spark a great idea. E) Exercise; that is mild exercise, save strength, sleep as much as possible. S) Serenity; this is very important. Meditation, sensitivity and remaining human. A sense of community.

APPENDIX Overall tips Sub terrain.

See appendix TMM&W Caves, Caverns and Tunnel characteristics.

Spoil from the tunnel system is normally distributed over a wide area.

Entrances and exits are concealed, bunkers can be placed over them, and even within the tunnel complex itself, side tunnels are concealed, hidden trapdoors are prevalent, and dead-end tunnels are used to confuse the attacker.

Trapdoors may be used, both at entrances and exits and inside the tunnel complex itself, concealing side tunnels and intermediate sections of a main tunnel. In many cases, a trapdoor will lead to a slight change of direction or a change in level (altitude) of the tunnel, followed by a second trapdoor, a second change of direction, and a third trapdoor opening again into the main tunnel. Trapdoors are of several types: They may be concrete covered by dirt, hard packed dirt reinforced by wire, or a “basin” type consisting of a frame filled with dirt. This latter type is particularly difficult to locate in that probing will not reveal the presence of the trapdoor unless the outer frame is struck by the probe. Trapdoors covering entrances/exits are generally a minimum of 100 meters apart. Air vents, water locks and Booby traps may be used extensively, booby traps both inside and outside entrance/exit trapdoors.

Two members of a team enter the tunnel with wire communications to the surface. Careful mapping of a tunnel complex may reveal other hidden entrances as well as the location of adjacent tunnel complexes and underground defensive systems. Constant communication between the tunnel and the surface is essential to facilitate tunnel mapping and exploitation. As the team moves through the tunnel, they monitor the bobble of their level, compass headings and distances traversed all are relayed to the surface.

Small caliber pistols or pistols with silencers are the weapons of choice in tunnels

TA-1 telephone - two each

One-half mile field wire on doughnut roll

APPENDIX TRAINING

Training push ups teams one foot on neighbors back of neck other on small of back etc. Shooting at target next to partner. Swimming pool deep slow dives with hands feet handicapped.

Training warm up/practice vs. final test difference being with the final you were all alone.

The appear on one of these balconies in 5 minutes.

" I well bet my lucky star" IKYG

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Thursday, July 14, 2011

Tri-F Appendixes

AHOY,

APPENDIX STEP # 2 COMMANDERS INTENT

APPENDIX MM&W

MOUNTAIN ROUTE PLANNING

Time-Distance Formulas.

Cave, Caverns and Tunnel Characteristics

Appendix ISALUTERWP

Appendix Patrol order part A

Appendix Patrol order part B

APPENDIX DEF rule # 3

APPENDIX DEF. rule # 5

NVDs

APPENDIX DEF. rule # 7

COMMUNICATIONS

FIELD-EXPEDIENT ANTENNAS

RADIO OPERATIONS UNDER UNUSUAL CONDITIONS

ARCTIC AREAS

JUNGLE AREAS

DESERT AREAS

MOUNTAINOUS AREAS

URBANIZED TERRAIN

Appendix PCP rule # 4/5

CLIMBING HARDWARE

Pickets, Ice Axes and hammers

PITONS

CHOCKS

Camming Devices;

BOLTS

Ice Screws

ASCENDERS

CLIMBING SOFTWARE

ROPE MANAGEMENT AND KNOTS

RAPPEL SEAT

ANCHORS

Mix gas closed circuit oxygen UBA (MK-15) LAR V Draeger/Dredger

A rebreather

Semi-closed rebreathers

SELF-CONTAINED, DEMAND-TYPE BREATHING APPARATUS

Cavern Diving

BREECHING EQUIPMENT:

(UGVs, or unmanned ground vehicles)

Less lethal;

APPENDIX PCP Rule # 13.

**** Stopped editing

GLACIERS

APPENDIX COE rule # 11

APPENDIX Safeguard

APPENDIX Overall tips Sub terrain.

APPENDIX TRAINING

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